Osamu Aoki This book is free; you may redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License of any version compliant to the Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG). 2013-2018 Osamu Aoki This Debian Reference (version @-@dr-version@-@) (@-@build-date@-@) is intended to provide a broad overview of the Debian system as a post-installation user's guide. It covers many aspects of system administration through shell-command examples for non-developers. This Debian Reference (version @-@dr-version@-@) (@-@build-date@-@) is intended to provide a broad overview of the Debian system administration as a post-installation user guide. The target reader is someone who is willing to learn shell scripts but who is not ready to read all the C sources to figure out how the GNU/Linux system works. For installation instructions, see: Debian GNU/Linux Installation Guide for current stable system Debian GNU/Linux Installation Guide for current testing system

All warranties are disclaimed. All trademarks are property of their respective trademark owners. The Debian system itself is a moving target. This makes its documentation difficult to be current and correct. Although the current unstable version of the Debian system was used as the basis for writing this, some contents may be already outdated by the time you read this. Please treat this document as the secondary reference. This document does not replace any authoritative guides. The author and contributors do not take responsibility for consequences of errors, omissions or ambiguity in this document.

The Debian Project is an association of individuals who have made common cause to create a free operating system. It's distribution is characterized by the following. Commitment to the software freedom: Debian Social Contract and Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG) Internet based distributed unpaid volunteer effort: https://www.debian.org Large number of pre-compiled high quality software packages Focus on stability and security with easy access to the security updates Focus on smooth upgrade to the latest software packages in the unstable and testing archives Large number of supported hardware architectures Free Software pieces in Debian come from GNU, Linux, BSD, X, ISC, Apache, Ghostscript, Common Unix Printing System , Samba, GNOME, KDE, Mozilla, LibreOffice, Vim, TeX, LaTeX, DocBook, Perl, Python, Tcl, Java, Ruby, PHP, Berkeley DB, MariaDB, PostgreSQL, SQLite, Exim, Postfix, Mutt, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, Plan 9 and many more independent free software projects. Debian integrates this diversity of Free Software into one system.

Following guiding rules are followed while compiling this document. Provide overview and skip corner cases. (Big Picture) Keep It Short and Simple. (KISS) Do not reinvent the wheel. (Use pointers to the existing references) Focus on non-GUI tools and consoles. (Use shell examples) Be objective. (Use popcon etc.) I tried to elucidate hierarchical aspects and lower levels of the system.

You are expected to make good efforts to seek answers by yourself beyond this documentation. This document only gives efficient starting points. You must seek solution by yourself from primary sources. The Debian Administrator's Handbook The Debian site at https://www.debian.org for the general information The documentation under the "/usr/share/doc/<package_name>" directory The Unix style manpage: "dpkg -L <package_name> |grep '/man/man.*/'" The GNU style info page: "dpkg -L <package_name> |grep '/info/'" The bug report: http://bugs.debian.org/<package_name> The Debian Wiki at https://wiki.debian.org/ for the moving and specific topics The HOWTOs from The Linux Documentation Project (TLDP) at http://tldp.org/ The Single UNIX Specification from the Open Group's The UNIX System Home Page at http://www.unix.org/ The free encyclopedia from Wikipedia at https://www.wikipedia.org/ For detailed documentation, you may need to install the corresponding documentation package named with "-doc" as its suffix.

This document provides information through the following simplified presentation style with bash1 shell command examples. # <command in root account> $ <command in user account> These shell prompts distinguish account used and correspond to set environment variables as: "PS1='\$'" and "PS2=' '". These values are chosen for the sake of readability of this document and are not typical on actual installed system. See the meaning of the "$PS1" and "$PS2" environment variables in bash1. Action required by the system administrator is written in the imperative sentence, e.g. "Type Enter-key after typing each command string to the shell." The description column and similar ones in the table may contain a noun phrase following the package short description convention which drops leading articles such as "a" and "the". They may alternatively contain an infinitive phrase as a noun phrase without leading "to" following the short command description convention in manpages. These may look funny to some people but are my intentional choices of style to keep this documentation as simple as possible. These Noun phrases do not capitalize their starting nor end with periods following these short description convention. Proper nouns including command names keeps their case irrespective of their location. A command snippet quoted in a text paragraph is referred by the typewriter font between double quotation marks, such as "aptitude safe-upgrade". A text data from a configuration file quoted in a text paragraph is referred by the typewriter font between double quotation marks, such as "deb-src". A command is referred by its name in the typewriter font optionally followed by its manpage section number in parenthesis, such as bash1. You are encouraged to obtain information by typing the following. $ man 1 bash A manpage is referred by its name in the typewriter font followed by its manpage section number in parenthesis, such as sources.list5. You are encouraged to obtain information by typing the following. $ man 5 sources.list An info page is referred by its command snippet in the typewriter font between double quotation marks, such as "info make". You are encouraged to obtain information by typing the following. $ info make A filename is referred by the typewriter font between double quotation marks, such as "/etc/passwd". For configuration files, you are encouraged to obtain information by typing the following. $ sensible-pager "/etc/passwd" A directory name is referred by the typewriter font between double quotation marks, such as "/etc/apt/". You are encouraged to explore its contents by typing the following. $ mc "/etc/apt/" A package name is referred by its name in the typewriter font, such as vim. You are encouraged to obtain information by typing the following. $ dpkg -L vim $ apt-cache show vim $ aptitude show vim A documentation may indicate its location by the filename in the typewriter font between double quotation marks, such as "/usr/share/doc/base-passwd/users-and-groups.txt.gz" and "/usr/share/doc/base-passwd/users-and-groups.html"; or by its URL, such as https://www.debian.org. You are encouraged to read the documentation by typing the following. $ zcat "/usr/share/doc/base-passwd/users-and-groups.txt.gz" | sensible-pager $ sensible-browser "/usr/share/doc/base-passwd/users-and-groups.html" $ sensible-browser "https://www.debian.org" An environment variable is referred by its name with leading "$" in the typewriter font between double quotation marks, such as "$TERM". You are encouraged to obtain its current value by typing the following. $ echo "$TERM"

The popcon data is presented as the objective measure for the popularity of each package. It was downloaded on @-@pop-date@-@ and contains the total submission of @-@pop-submissions@-@ reports over @-@pop-packages@-@ binary packages and @-@pop-architectures@-@ architectures. Please note that the @-@arch@-@ unstable archive contains only @-@all-packages@-@ packages currently. The popcon data contains reports from many old system installations. The popcon number preceded with "V:" for "votes" is calculated by "1000 * (the popcon submissions for the package executed recently on the PC)/(the total popcon submissions)". The popcon number preceded with "I:" for "installs" is calculated by "1000 * (the popcon submissions for the package installed on the PC)/(the total popcon submissions)". The popcon figures should not be considered as absolute measures of the importance of packages. There are many factors which can skew statistics. For example, some system participating popcon may have mounted directories such as "/bin" with "noatime" option for system performance improvement and effectively disabled "vote" from such system.

The package size data is also presented as the objective measure for each package. It is based on the "Installed-Size:" reported by "apt-cache show" or "aptitude show" command (currently on @-@arch@-@ architecture for the unstable release). The reported size is in KiB (Kibibyte = unit for 1024 bytes). A package with a small numerical package size may indicate that the package in the unstable release is a dummy package which installs other packages with significant contents by the dependency. The dummy package enables a smooth transition or split of the package. A package size followed by "(*)" indicates that the package in the unstable release is missing and the package size for the experimental release is used instead.

Please file bug reports on the debian-reference package using reportbug1 if you find any issues on this document. Please include correction suggestion by "diff -u" to the plain text version or to the source.

Here are some reminders for new users: Backup your data Secure your password and security keys KISS (keep it simple stupid) Don't over-engineer your system Read your log files The FIRST error is the one that counts RTFM (read the fine manual) Search the Internet before asking questions Don't be root when you don't have to be Don't mess with the package management system Don't type anything you don't understand Don't change the file permissions (before the full security review) Don't leave your root shell until you TEST your changes Always have an alternative boot media (USB memory stick, CD, …)

Here are some interesting quotes from the Debian mailing list which may help enlighten new users. "This is Unix. It gives you enough rope to hang yourself." --- Miquel van Smoorenburg <miquels at cistron.nl> "Unix IS user friendly… It's just selective about who its friends are." --- Tollef Fog Heen <tollef at add.no> Wikipedia has article "Unix philosophy" which lists interesting quotes.

I think learning a computer system is like learning a new foreign language. Although tutorial books and documentation are helpful, you have to practice it yourself. In order to help you get started smoothly, I elaborate a few basic points. The powerful design of Debian GNU/Linux comes from the Unix operating system, i.e., a multiuser, multitasking operating system. You must learn to take advantage of the power of these features and similarities between Unix and GNU/Linux. Don't shy away from Unix oriented texts and don't rely solely on GNU/Linux texts, as this robs you of much useful information. If you have been using any Unix-like system for a while with command line tools, you probably know everything I explain here. Please use this as a reality check and refresher.

Upon starting the system, you are presented with the character based login screen if you did not install X Window System with the display manager such as gdm3. Suppose your hostname is foo, the login prompt looks as follows. foo login: If you did install a GUI environment such as GNOME or KDE, then you can get to a login prompt by Ctrl-Alt-F1, and you can return to the GUI environment via Alt-F7 (see below for more). At the login prompt, you type your username, e.g. penguin, and press the Enter-key, then type your password and press the Enter-key again. Following the Unix tradition, the username and password of the Debian system are case sensitive. The username is usually chosen only from the lowercase. The first user account is usually created during the installation. Additional user accounts can be created with adduser8 by root. The system starts with the greeting message stored in "/etc/motd" (Message Of The Day) and presents a command prompt. Debian GNU/Linux jessie/sid foo tty1 foo login: penguin Password: Last login: Mon Sep 23 19:36:44 JST 2013 on tty3 Linux snoopy 3.11-1-amd64 #1 SMP Debian 3.11.6-2 (2013-11-01) x86_64 The programs included with the Debian GNU/Linux system are free software; the exact distribution terms for each program are described in the individual files in /usr/share/doc/*/copyright. Debian GNU/Linux comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY, to the extent permitted by applicable law. foo:~$ Now you are in the shell. The shell interprets your commands.

If you installed X Window System with a display manager such as GNOME's gdm3 by selecting "Desktop environment" task during the installation, you are presented with the graphical login screen upon starting your system. You type your username and your password to login to the non-privileged user account. Use tab to navigate between username and password, or use the mouse and primary click. You can gain the shell prompt under X by starting a x-terminal-emulator program such as gnome-terminal1, rxvt1 or xterm1. Under the GNOME Desktop environment, clicking "Applications" → "Accessories" → "Terminal" does the trick. You can also see the section below . Under some other Desktop systems (like fluxbox), there may be no obvious starting point for the menu. If this happens, just try (right) clicking the background of the desktop screen and hope for a menu to pop-up.

The root account is also called superuser or privileged user. From this account, you can perform the following system administration tasks. Read, write, and remove any files on the system irrespective of their file permissions Set file ownership and permissions of any files on the system Set the password of any non-privileged users on the system Login to any accounts without their passwords This unlimited power of root account requires you to be considerate and responsible when using it. Never share the root password with others. File permissions of a file (including hardware devices such as CD-ROM etc. which are just another file for the Debian system) may render it unusable or inaccessible by non-root users. Although the use of root account is a quick way to test this kind of situation, its resolution should be done through proper setting of file permissions and user's group membership (see ).

Here are a few basic methods to gain the root shell prompt by using the root password. Type root at the character based login prompt. Click "Applications" → "Accessories" → "Root Terminal", under the GNOME Desktop environment. Type "su -l" from any user shell prompt. This does not preserve the environment of the current user. Type "su" from any user shell prompt. This preserves some of the environment of the current user.

When your desktop menu does not start GUI system administration tools automatically with the appropriate privilege, you can start them from the root shell prompt of the X terminal emulator, such as gnome-terminal1, rxvt1, or xterm1. See and . Never start the X display/session manager under the root account by typing in root to the prompt of the display manager such as gdm31. Never run untrusted remote GUI program under X Window when critical information is displayed since it may eavesdrop your X screen.

In the default Debian system, there are six switchable VT100-like character consoles available to start the command shell directly on the Linux host. Unless you are in a GUI environment, you can switch between the virtual consoles by pressing the Left-Alt-key and one of the F1 — F6 keys simultaneously. Each character console allows independent login to the account and offers the multiuser environment. This multiuser environment is a great Unix feature, and very addictive. If you are under the X Window System, you gain access to the character console 1 by pressing Ctrl-Alt-F1 key, i.e., the left-Ctrl-key, the left-Alt-key, and the F1-key are pressed together. You can get back to the X Window System, normally running on the virtual console 7, by pressing Alt-F7. You can alternatively change to another virtual console, e.g. to the console 1, from the commandline. # chvt 1

You type Ctrl-D, i.e., the left-Ctrl-key and the d-key pressed together, at the command prompt to close the shell activity. If you are at the character console, you return to the login prompt with this. Even though these control characters are referred as "control D" with the upper case, you do not need to press the Shift-key. The short hand expression, ^D, is also used for Ctrl-D. Alternately, you can type "exit". If you are at x-terminal-emulator1, you can close x-terminal-emulator window with this.

Just like any other modern OS where the file operation involves caching data in memory for improved performance, the Debian system needs the proper shutdown procedure before power can safely be turned off. This is to maintain the integrity of files, by forcing all changes in memory to be written to disk. If the software power control is available, the shutdown procedure automatically turns off power of the system. (Otherwise, you may have to press power button for few seconds after the shutdown procedure.) You can shutdown the system under the normal multiuser mode from the commandline. # shutdown -h now You can shutdown the system under the single-user mode from the commandline. # poweroff -i -f Alternatively, you may type Ctrl-Alt-Delete (The left-Ctrl-key, the left-Alt-Key, and the Delete are pressed together) to shutdown if "/etc/inittab" contains "ca:12345:ctrlaltdel:/sbin/shutdown -t1 -a -h now" in it. See inittab5 for details. See .

When the screen goes berserk after doing some funny things such as "cat <some-binary-file>", type "reset" at the command prompt. You may not be able to see the command echoed as you type. You may also issue "clear" to clean up the screen.

Although even the minimal installation of the Debian system without any desktop environment tasks provides the basic Unix functionality, it is a good idea to install few additional commandline and curses based character terminal packages such as mc and vim with apt-get8 for beginners to get started by the following. # apt-get update ... # apt-get install mc vim sudo ... If you already had these packages installed, no new packages are installed. package popcon size description mc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ A text-mode full-screen file manager sudo @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ A program to allow limited root privileges to users vim @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Unix text editor Vi IMproved, a programmers text editor (standard version) vim-tiny @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Unix text editor Vi IMproved, a programmers text editor (compact version) emacs25 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNU project Emacs, the Lisp based extensible text editor w3m @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Text-mode WWW browsers gpm @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ The Unix style cut-and-paste on the text console (daemon) It may be a good idea to read some informative documentations. package popcon size description doc-debian @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Debian Project documentation, (Debian FAQ) and other documents debian-policy @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Debian Policy Manual and related documents developers-reference @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Guidelines and information for Debian developers maint-guide @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Debian New Maintainers' Guide debian-history @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ History of the Debian Project debian-faq @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Debian FAQ You can install some of these packages by the following. # apt-get install package_name

If you do not want to use your main user account for the following training activities, you can create a training user account, e.g. fish by the following. # adduser fish Answer all questions. This creates a new account named as fish. After your practice, you can remove this user account and its home directory by the following. # deluser --remove-home fish

For the typical single user workstation such as the desktop Debian system on the laptop PC, it is common to deploy simple configuration of sudo8 as follows to let the non-privileged user, e.g. penguin, to gain administrative privilege just with his user password but without the root password. # echo "penguin ALL=(ALL) ALL" >> /etc/sudoers Alternatively, it is also common to do as follows to let the non-privileged user, e.g. penguin, to gain administrative privilege without any password. # echo "penguin ALL=(ALL) NOPASSWD:ALL" >> /etc/sudoers This trick should only be used for the single user workstation which you administer and where you are the only user. Do not set up accounts of regular users on multiuser workstation like this because it would be very bad for system security. The password and the account of the penguin in the above example requires as much protection as the root password and the root account. Administrative privilege in this context belongs to someone authorized to perform the system administration task on the workstation. Never give some manager in the Admin department of your company or your boss such privilege unless they are authorized and capable. For providing access privilege to limited devices and limited files, you should consider to use group to provide limited access instead of using the root privilege via sudo8. With more thoughtful and careful configuration, sudo8 can grant limited administrative privileges to other users on a shared system without sharing the root password. This can help with accountability with hosts with multiple administrators so you can tell who did what. On the other hand, you might not want anyone else to have such privileges.

Now you are ready to play with the Debian system without risks as long as you use the non-privileged user account. This is because the Debian system is, even after the default installation, configured with proper file permissions which prevent non-privileged users from damaging the system. Of course, there may still be some holes which can be exploited but those who worry about these issues should not be reading this section but should be reading Securing Debian Manual. We learn the Debian system as a Unix-like system with the following. (basic concept) (survival method) (basic method) (shell mechanism) (text processing method)

In GNU/Linux and other Unix-like operating systems, files are organized into directories. All files and directories are arranged in one big tree rooted at "/". It's called a tree because if you draw the filesystem, it looks like a tree but it is upside down. These files and directories can be spread out over several devices. mount8 serves to attach the filesystem found on some device to the big file tree. Conversely, umount8 detaches it again. On recent Linux kernels, mount8 with some options can bind part of a file tree somewhere else or can mount filesystem as shared, private, slave, or unbindable. Supported mount options for each filesystem are available in "/usr/share/doc/linux-doc-*/Documentation/filesystems/". Directories on Unix systems are called folders on some other systems. Please also note that there is no concept for drive such as "A:" on any Unix system. There is one filesystem, and everything is included. This is a huge advantage compared to Windows.

Here are some Unix file basics. Filenames are case sensitive. That is, "MYFILE" and "MyFile" are different files. The root directory means root of the filesystem referred as simply "/". Don't confuse this with the home directory for the root user: "/root". Every directory has a name which can contain any letters or symbols except "/". The root directory is an exception; its name is "/" (pronounced "slash" or "the root directory") and it cannot be renamed. Each file or directory is designated by a fully-qualified filename, absolute filename, or path, giving the sequence of directories which must be passed through to reach it. The three terms are synonymous. All fully-qualified filenames begin with the "/" directory, and there's a "/" between each directory or file in the filename. The first "/" is the top level directory, and the other "/"'s separate successive subdirectories, until we reach the last entry which is the name of the actual file. The words used here can be confusing. Take the following fully-qualified filename as an example: "/usr/share/keytables/us.map.gz". However, people also refers to its basename "us.map.gz" alone as a filename. The root directory has a number of branches, such as "/etc/" and "/usr/". These subdirectories in turn branch into still more subdirectories, such as "/etc/init.d/" and "/usr/local/". The whole thing viewed collectively is called the directory tree. You can think of an absolute filename as a route from the base of the tree ("/") to the end of some branch (a file). You also hear people talk about the directory tree as if it were a family tree encompassing all direct descendants of a single figure called the root directory ("/"): thus subdirectories have parents, and a path shows the complete ancestry of a file. There are also relative paths that begin somewhere other than the root directory. You should remember that the directory "../" refers to the parent directory. This terminology also applies to other directory like structures, such as hierarchical data structures. There's no special directory path name component that corresponds to a physical device, such as your hard disk. This differs from RT-11, CP/M, OpenVMS, MS-DOS, AmigaOS, and Microsoft Windows, where the path contains a device name such as "C:\". (However, directory entries do exist that refer to physical devices as a part of the normal filesystem. See .) While you can use almost any letters or symbols in a file name, in practice it is a bad idea to do so. It is better to avoid any characters that often have special meanings on the command line, including spaces, tabs, newlines, and other special characters: { } ( ) [ ] ' ` " \ / > < | ; ! # & ^ * % @ $ . If you want to separate words in a name, good choices are the period, hyphen, and underscore. You could also capitalize each word, "LikeThis". Experienced Linux users tend to avoid spaces in filenames. The word "root" can mean either "root user" or "root directory". The context of their usage should make it clear. The word path is used not only for fully-qualified filename as above but also for the command search path. The intended meaning is usually clear from the context. The detailed best practices for the file hierarchy are described in the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard ("/usr/share/doc/debian-policy/fhs/fhs-2.3.txt.gz" and hier7). You should remember the following facts as the starter. directory usage of the directory / the root directory /etc/ system wide configuration files /var/log/ system log files /home/ all the home directories for all non-privileged users

Following the Unix tradition, the Debian GNU/Linux system provides the filesystem under which physical data on hard disks and other storage devices reside, and the interaction with the hardware devices such as console screens and remote serial consoles are represented in an unified manner under "/dev/". Each file, directory, named pipe (a way two programs can share data), or physical device on a Debian GNU/Linux system has a data structure called an inode which describes its associated attributes such as the user who owns it (owner), the group that it belongs to, the time last accessed, etc. The idea of representing just about everything in the filesystem was a Unix innovation, and modern Linux kernels have developed this idea ever further. Now, even information about processes running in the computer can be found in the filesystem. This abstract and unified representation of physical entities and internal processes is very powerful since this allows us to use the same command for the same kind of operation on many totally different devices. It is even possible to change the way the kernel works by writing data to special files that are linked to running processes. If you need to identify the correspondence between the file tree and the physical entity, execute mount8 with no arguments.

Filesystem permissions of Unix-like system are defined for three categories of affected users. The user who owns the file (u) Other users in the group which the file belongs to (g) All other users (o) also referred to as "world" and "everyone" For the file, each corresponding permission allows following actions. The read (r) permission allows owner to examine contents of the file. The write (w) permission allows owner to modify the file. The execute (x) permission allows owner to run the file as a command. For the directory, each corresponding permission allows following actions. The read (r) permission allows owner to list contents of the directory. The write (w) permission allows owner to add or remove files in the directory. The execute (x) permission allows owner to access files in the directory. Here, the execute permission on a directory means not only to allow reading of files in that directory but also to allow viewing their attributes, such as the size and the modification time. ls1 is used to display permission information (and more) for files and directories. When it is invoked with the "-l" option, it displays the following information in the order given. Type of file (first character) Access permission of the file (nine characters, consisting of three characters each for user, group, and other in this order) Number of hard links to the file Name of the user who owns the file Name of the group which the file belongs to Size of the file in characters (bytes) Date and time of the file (mtime) Name of the file character meaning - normal file d directory l symlink c character device node b block device node p named pipe s socket chown1 is used from the root account to change the owner of the file. chgrp1 is used from the file's owner or root account to change the group of the file. chmod1 is used from the file's owner or root account to change file and directory access permissions. Basic syntax to manipulate a foo file is the following. # chown <newowner> foo # chgrp <newgroup> foo # chmod [ugoa][+-=][rwxXst][,...] foo For example, you can make a directory tree to be owned by a user foo and shared by a group bar by the following. # cd /some/location/ # chown -R foo:bar . # chmod -R ug+rwX,o=rX . There are three more special permission bits. The set user ID bit (s or S instead of user's x) The set group ID bit (s or S instead of group's x) The sticky bit (t or T instead of other's x) Here the output of "ls -l" for these bits is capitalized if execution bits hidden by these outputs are unset. Setting set user ID on an executable file allows a user to execute the executable file with the owner ID of the file (for example root). Similarly, setting set group ID on an executable file allows a user to execute the executable file with the group ID of the file (for example root). Because these settings can cause security risks, enabling them requires extra caution. Setting set group ID on a directory enables the BSD-like file creation scheme where all files created in the directory belong to the group of the directory. Setting the sticky bit on a directory prevents a file in the directory from being removed by a user who is not the owner of the file. In order to secure contents of a file in world-writable directories such as "/tmp" or in group-writable directories, one must not only reset the write permission for the file but also set the sticky bit on the directory. Otherwise, the file can be removed and a new file can be created with the same name by any user who has write access to the directory. Here are a few interesting examples of file permissions. $ ls -l /etc/passwd /etc/shadow /dev/ppp /usr/sbin/exim4 crw------T 1 root root 108, 0 Oct 16 20:57 /dev/ppp -rw-r--r-- 1 root root 2761 Aug 30 10:38 /etc/passwd -rw-r----- 1 root shadow 1695 Aug 30 10:38 /etc/shadow -rwsr-xr-x 1 root root 973824 Sep 23 20:04 /usr/sbin/exim4 $ ls -ld /tmp /var/tmp /usr/local /var/mail /usr/src drwxrwxrwt 14 root root 20480 Oct 16 21:25 /tmp drwxrwsr-x 10 root staff 4096 Sep 29 22:50 /usr/local drwxr-xr-x 10 root root 4096 Oct 11 00:28 /usr/src drwxrwsr-x 2 root mail 4096 Oct 15 21:40 /var/mail drwxrwxrwt 3 root root 4096 Oct 16 21:20 /var/tmp There is an alternative numeric mode to describe file permissions with chmod1. This numeric mode uses 3 to 4 digit wide octal (radix=8) numbers. digit meaning 1st optional digit sum of set user ID (=4), set group ID (=2), and sticky bit (=1) 2nd digit sum of read (=4), write (=2), and execute (=1) permissions for user 3rd digit ditto for group 4th digit ditto for other This sounds complicated but it is actually quite simple. If you look at the first few (2-10) columns from "ls -l" command output and read it as a binary (radix=2) representation of file permissions ("-" being "0" and "rwx" being "1"), the last 3 digit of the numeric mode value should make sense as an octal (radix=8) representation of file permissions to you. For example, try the following $ touch foo bar $ chmod u=rw,go=r foo $ chmod 644 bar $ ls -l foo bar -rw-r--r-- 1 penguin penguin 0 Oct 16 21:39 bar -rw-r--r-- 1 penguin penguin 0 Oct 16 21:35 foo If you need to access information displayed by "ls -l" in shell script, you should use pertinent commands such as test1, stat1 and readlink1. The shell builtin such as "[" or "test" may be used too.

What permissions are applied to a newly created file or directory is restricted by the umask shell builtin command. See dash1, bash1, and builtins7. (file permissions) = (requested file permissions) & ~(umask value) umask file permissions created directory permissions created usage 0022 -rw-r--r-- -rwxr-xr-x writable only by the user 0002 -rw-rw-r-- -rwxrwxr-x writable by the group The Debian system uses a user private group (UPG) scheme as its default. A UPG is created whenever a new user is added to the system. A UPG has the same name as the user for which it was created and that user is the only member of the UPG. UPG scheme makes it safe to set umask to 0002 since every user has their own private group. (In some Unix variants, it is quite common to setup all normal users belonging to a single users group and is a good idea to set umask to 0022 for security in such cases.) Enable UPG by putting "umask 002" in the ~/.bashrc file.

In order to make group permissions to be applied to a particular user, that user needs to be made a member of the group using "sudo vigr" for /etc/group and "sudo vigr -s" for /etc/gshadow. You need to login after logout (or run "exec newgrp") to enable the new group configuration. Alternatively, you may dynamically add users to groups during the authentication process by adding "auth optional pam_group.so" line to "/etc/pam.d/common-auth" and setting "/etc/security/group.conf". (See .) The hardware devices are just another kind of file on the Debian system. If you have problems accessing devices such as CD-ROM and USB memory stick from a user account, you should make that user a member of the relevant group. Some notable system-provided groups allow their members to access particular files and devices without root privilege. group description for accessible files and devices dialout full and direct access to serial ports ("/dev/ttyS[0-3]") dip limited access to serial ports for Dialup IP connection to trusted peers cdrom CD-ROM, DVD+/-RW drives audio audio device video video device scanner scanner(s) adm system monitoring logs staff some directories for junior administrative work: "/usr/local", "/home" You need to belong to the dialout group to reconfigure modem, dial anywhere, etc. But if root creates pre-defined configuration files for trusted peers in "/etc/ppp/peers/", you only need to belong to the dip group to create Dialup IP connection to those trusted peers using pppd8, pon1, and poff1 commands. Some notable system-provided groups allow their members to execute particular commands without root privilege. group accessible commands sudo execute sudo without their password lpadmin execute commands to add, modify, and remove printers from printer databases For the full listing of the system provided users and groups, see the recent version of the "Users and Groups" document in "/usr/share/doc/base-passwd/users-and-groups.html" provided by the base-passwd package. See passwd5, group5, shadow5, newgrp1, vipw8, vigr8, and pam_group8 for management commands of the user and group system.

There are three types of timestamps for a GNU/Linux file. type meaning (historic Unix definition) mtime the file modification time (ls -l) ctime the file status change time (ls -lc) atime the last file access time (ls -lu) ctime is not file creation time. The actual value of atime on GNU/Linux system may be different from that of the historic Unix definition. Overwriting a file changes all of the mtime, ctime, and atime attributes of the file. Changing ownership or permission of a file changes the ctime and atime attributes of the file. Reading a file changes the atime attribute of the file on the historic Unix system. Reading a file changes the atime attribute of the file on the GNU/Linux system if its filesystem is mounted with "strictatime". Reading a file for the first time or after one day changes the atime attribute of the file on the GNU/Linux system if its filesystem is mounted with "relatime". (default behavior since Linux 2.6.30) Reading a file doesn't change the atime attribute of the file on the GNU/Linux system if its filesystem is mounted with "noatime". The "noatime" and "relatime" mount options are introduced to improve the filesystem read performance under the normal use cases. Simple file read operation under the "strictatime" option accompanies the time-consuming write operation to update the atime attribute. But the atime attribute is rarely used except for the mbox5 file. See mount8. Use touch1 command to change timestamps of existing files. For timestamps, the ls command outputs different strings under non-English locale ("fr_FR.UTF-8") from under the old one ("C"). $ LANG=fr_FR.UTF-8 ls -l foo -rw-rw-r-- 1 penguin penguin 0 oct. 16 21:35 foo $ LANG=C ls -l foo -rw-rw-r-- 1 penguin penguin 0 Oct 16 21:35 foo See to customize "ls -l" output.

There are two methods of associating a file "foo" with a different filename "bar". Hard link Duplicate name for an existing file "ln foo bar" Symbolic link or symlink Special file that points to another file by name "ln -s foo bar" See the following example for changes in link counts and the subtle differences in the result of the rm command. $ umask 002 $ echo "Original Content" > foo $ ls -li foo 1449840 -rw-rw-r-- 1 penguin penguin 17 Oct 16 21:42 foo $ ln foo bar # hard link $ ln -s foo baz # symlink $ ls -li foo bar baz 1449840 -rw-rw-r-- 2 penguin penguin 17 Oct 16 21:42 bar 1450180 lrwxrwxrwx 1 penguin penguin 3 Oct 16 21:47 baz -> foo 1449840 -rw-rw-r-- 2 penguin penguin 17 Oct 16 21:42 foo $ rm foo $ echo "New Content" > foo $ ls -li foo bar baz 1449840 -rw-rw-r-- 1 penguin penguin 17 Oct 16 21:42 bar 1450180 lrwxrwxrwx 1 penguin penguin 3 Oct 16 21:47 baz -> foo 1450183 -rw-rw-r-- 1 penguin penguin 12 Oct 16 21:48 foo $ cat bar Original Content $ cat baz New Content The hardlink can be made within the same filesystem and shares the same inode number which the "-i" option with ls1 reveals. The symlink always has nominal file access permissions of "rwxrwxrwx", as shown in the above example, with the effective access permissions dictated by permissions of the file that it points to. It is generally a good idea not to create complicated symbolic links or hardlinks at all unless you have a very good reason. It may cause nightmares where the logical combination of the symbolic links results in loops in the filesystem. It is generally preferable to use symbolic links rather than hardlinks unless you have a good reason for using a hardlink. The "." directory links to the directory that it appears in, thus the link count of any new directory starts at 2. The ".." directory links to the parent directory, thus the link count of the directory increases with the addition of new subdirectories. If you are just moving to Linux from Windows, it soon becomes clear how well-designed the filename linking of Unix is, compared with the nearest Windows equivalent of "shortcuts". Because it is implemented in the filesystem, applications can't see any difference between a linked file and the original. In the case of hardlinks, there really is no difference.

A named pipe is a file that acts like a pipe. You put something into the file, and it comes out the other end. Thus it's called a FIFO, or First-In-First-Out: the first thing you put in the pipe is the first thing to come out the other end. If you write to a named pipe, the process which is writing to the pipe doesn't terminate until the information being written is read from the pipe. If you read from a named pipe, the reading process waits until there is nothing to read before terminating. The size of the pipe is always zero --- it does not store data, it just links two processes like the functionality offered by the shell "|" syntax. However, since this pipe has a name, the two processes don't have to be on the same command line or even be run by the same user. Pipes were a very influential innovation of Unix. For example, try the following $ cd; mkfifo mypipe $ echo "hello" >mypipe & # put into background [1] 8022 $ ls -l mypipe prw-rw-r-- 1 penguin penguin 0 Oct 16 21:49 mypipe $ cat mypipe hello [1]+ Done echo "hello" >mypipe $ ls mypipe mypipe $ rm mypipe

Sockets are used extensively by all the Internet communication, databases, and the operating system itself. It is similar to the named pipe (FIFO) and allows processes to exchange information even between different computers. For the socket, those processes do not need to be running at the same time nor to be running as the children of the same ancestor process. This is the endpoint for the inter process communication (IPC). The exchange of information may occur over the network between different hosts. The two most common ones are the Internet socket and the Unix domain socket. "netstat -an" provides a very useful overview of sockets that are open on a given system.

Device files refer to physical or virtual devices on your system, such as your hard disk, video card, screen, or keyboard. An example of a virtual device is the console, represented by "/dev/console". There are 2 types of device files. Character device Accessed one character at a time 1 character = 1 byte E.g. keyboard device, serial port, … Block device accessed in larger units called blocks 1 block > 1 byte E.g. hard disk, … You can read and write device files, though the file may well contain binary data which may be an incomprehensible-to-humans gibberish. Writing data directly to these files is sometimes useful for the troubleshooting of hardware connections. For example, you can dump a text file to the printer device "/dev/lp0" or send modem commands to the appropriate serial port "/dev/ttyS0". But, unless this is done carefully, it may cause a major disaster. So be cautious. For the normal access to a printer, use lp1. The device node number are displayed by executing ls1 as the following. $ ls -l /dev/sda /dev/sr0 /dev/ttyS0 /dev/zero brw-rw---T 1 root disk 8, 0 Oct 16 20:57 /dev/sda brw-rw---T+ 1 root cdrom 11, 0 Oct 16 21:53 /dev/sr0 crw-rw---T 1 root dialout 4, 64 Oct 16 20:57 /dev/ttyS0 crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 5 Oct 16 20:57 /dev/zero "/dev/sda" has the major device number 8 and the minor device number 0. This is read/write accessible by users belonging to the disk group. "/dev/sr0" has the major device number 11 and the minor device number 0. This is read/write accessible by users belonging to the cdrom group. "/dev/ttyS0" has the major device number 4 and the minor device number 64. This is read/write accessible by users belonging to the dialout group. "/dev/zero" has the major device number 1 and the minor device number 5. This is read/write accessible by anyone. On the modern Linux system, the filesystem under "/dev/" is automatically populated by the udev7 mechanism.

There are some special device files. device file action description of response /dev/null read return "end-of-file (EOF) character" /dev/null write return nothing (a bottomless data dump pit) /dev/zero read return "the \0 (NUL) character" (not the same as the number zero ASCII) /dev/random read return random characters from a true random number generator, delivering real entropy (slow) /dev/urandom read return random characters from a cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator /dev/full write return the disk-full (ENOSPC) error These are frequently used in conjunction with the shell redirection (see ).

The procfs and sysfs mounted on "/proc" and "/sys" are the pseudo-filesystem and expose internal data structures of the kernel to the userspace. In other word, these entries are virtual, meaning that they act as a convenient window into the operation of the operating system. The directory "/proc" contains (among other things) one subdirectory for each process running on the system, which is named after the process ID (PID). System utilities that access process information, such as ps1, get their information from this directory structure. The directories under "/proc/sys/" contain interfaces to change certain kernel parameters at run time. (You may do the same through the specialized sysctl8 command or its preload/configuration file "/etc/sysctl.conf".) People frequently panic when they notice one file in particular - "/proc/kcore" - which is generally huge. This is (more or less) a copy of the content of your computer's memory. It's used to debug the kernel. It is a virtual file that points to computer memory, so don't worry about its size. The directory under "/sys" contains exported kernel data structures, their attributes, and their linkages between them. It also contains interfaces to change certain kernel parameters at run time. See "proc.txt(.gz)", "sysfs.txt(.gz)" and other related documents in the Linux kernel documentation ("/usr/share/doc/linux-doc-*/Documentation/filesystems/*") provided by the linux-doc-* package.

The tmpfs is a temporary filesystem which keeps all files in the virtual memory. The data of the tmpfs in the page cache on memory may be swapped out to the swap space on disk as needed. The directory "/run" is mounted as the tmpfs in the early boot process. This enables writing to it even when the directory "/" is mounted as read-only. This is the new location for the storage of transient state files and replaces several locations described in the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard version 2.3: "/var/run" → "/run" "/var/lock" → "/run/lock" "/dev/shm" → "/run/shm" See "tmpfs.txt(.gz)" in the Linux kernel documentation ("/usr/share/doc/linux-doc-*/Documentation/filesystems/*") provided by the linux-doc-* package.

Midnight Commander (MC) is a GNU "Swiss army knife" for the Linux console and other terminal environments. This gives newbie a menu driven console experience which is much easier to learn than standard Unix commands. You may need to install the Midnight Commander package which is titled "mc" by the following. $ sudo apt-get install mc Use the mc1 command to explore the Debian system. This is the best way to learn. Please explore few interesting locations just using the cursor keys and Enter key. "/etc" and its subdirectories "/var/log" and its subdirectories "/usr/share/doc" and its subdirectories "/sbin" and "/bin"

In order to make MC to change working directory upon exit and cd to the directory, I suggest to modify "~/.bashrc" to include a script provided by the mc package. . /usr/lib/mc/mc.sh See mc1 (under the "-P" option) for the reason. (If you do not understand what exactly I am talking here, you can do this later.)

MC can be started by the following. $ mc MC takes care of all file operations through its menu, requiring minimal user effort. Just press F1 to get the help screen. You can play with MC just by pressing cursor-keys and function-keys. In some consoles such as gnome-terminal1, key strokes of function-keys may be stolen by the console program. You can disable these features by "Edit" → "Keyboard Shortcuts" for gnome-terminal. If you encounter character encoding problem which displays garbage characters, adding "-a" to MC's command line may help prevent problems. If this doesn't clear up your display problems with MC, see .

The default is two directory panels containing file lists. Another useful mode is to set the right window to "information" to see file access privilege information, etc. Following are some essential keystrokes. With the gpm8 daemon running, one can use a mouse on Linux character consoles, too. (Make sure to press the shift-key to obtain the normal behavior of cut and paste in MC.) key key binding F1 help menu F3 internal file viewer F4 internal editor F9 activate pull down menu F10 exit Midnight Commander Tab move between two windows Insert or Ctrl-T mark file for a multiple-file operation such as copy Del delete file (be careful---set MC to safe delete mode) Cursor keys self-explanatory

cd command changes the directory shown on the selected screen. Ctrl-Enter or Alt-Enter copies a filename to the command line. Use this with cp1 and mv1 commands together with command-line editing. Alt-Tab shows shell filename expansion choices. One can specify the starting directory for both windows as arguments to MC; for example, "mc /etc /root". Esc + n-key → Fn (i.e., Esc + 1 → F1, etc.; Esc + 0 → F10) Pressing Esc before the key has the same effect as pressing the Alt and the key together.; i.e., type Esc + c for Alt-C. Esc is called meta-key and sometimes noted as "M-".

The internal editor has an interesting cut-and-paste scheme. Pressing F3 marks the start of a selection, a second F3 marks the end of selection and highlights the selection. Then you can move your cursor. If you press F6, the selected area is moved to the cursor location. If you press F5, the selected area is copied and inserted at the cursor location. F2 saves the file. F10 gets you out. Most cursor keys work intuitively. This editor can be directly started on a file using one of the following commands. $ mc -e filename_to_edit $ mcedit filename_to_edit This is not a multi-window editor, but one can use multiple Linux consoles to achieve the same effect. To copy between windows, use Alt-F<n> keys to switch virtual consoles and use "File→Insert file" or "File→Copy to file" to move a portion of a file to another file. This internal editor can be replaced with any external editor of choice. Also, many programs use the environment variables "$EDITOR" or "$VISUAL" to decide which editor to use. If you are uncomfortable with vim1 or nano1 initially, you may set these to "mcedit" by adding the following lines to "~/.bashrc". export EDITOR=mcedit export VISUAL=mcedit I do recommend setting these to "vim" if possible. If you are uncomfortable with vim1, you can keep using mcedit1 for most system maintenance tasks.

MC is a very smart viewer. This is a great tool for searching words in documents. I always use this for files in the "/usr/share/doc" directory. This is the fastest way to browse through masses of Linux information. This viewer can be directly started using one of the following commands. $ mc -v path/to/filename_to_view $ mcview path/to/filename_to_view

Press Enter on a file, and the appropriate program handles the content of the file (see ). This is a very convenient MC feature. file type reaction to enter key executable file execute command man file pipe content to viewer software html file pipe content to web browser "*.tar.gz" and "*.deb" file browse its contents as if subdirectory In order to allow these viewer and virtual file features to function, viewable files should not be set as executable. Change their status using chmod1 or via the MC file menu.

MC can be used to access files over the Internet using FTP. Go to the menu by pressing F9, then type "p" to activate the FTP virtual filesystem. Enter a URL in the form "username:passwd@hostname.domainname", which retrieves a remote directory that appears like a local one. Try "[deb.debian.org/debian]" as the URL and browse the Debian archive.

Although MC enables you to do almost everything, it is very important for you to learn how to use the command line tools invoked from the shell prompt and become familiar with the Unix-like work environment.

You can select your login shell with chsh1. package popcon size POSIX shell description bash @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Yes Bash: the GNU Bourne Again SHell (de facto standard) tcsh @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ No TENEX C Shell: an enhanced version of Berkeley csh dash @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Yes Debian Almquist Shell, good for shell script zsh @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Yes Z shell: the standard shell with many enhancements mksh @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Yes A version of the Korn shell csh @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ No OpenBSD C Shell, a version of Berkeley csh sash @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Yes Stand-alone shell with builtin commands (Not meant for standard "/bin/sh") ksh @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Yes the real, AT&T version of the Korn shell rc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ No implementation of the AT&T Plan 9 rc shell posh @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Yes Policy-compliant Ordinary SHell (pdksh derivative) Although POSIX-like shells share the basic syntax, they can differ in behavior for things as basic as shell variables and glob expansions. Please check their documentation for details. In this tutorial chapter, the interactive shell always means bash.

You can customize bash1 behavior by "~/.bashrc". For example, try the following. # enable bash-completion if ! shopt -oq posix; then if [ -f /usr/share/bash-completion/bash_completion ]; then . /usr/share/bash-completion/bash_completion elif [ -f /etc/bash_completion ]; then . /etc/bash_completion fi fi # CD upon exiting MC . /usr/lib/mc/mc.sh # set CDPATH to a good one CDPATH=.:/usr/share/doc:~:~/Desktop:~ export CDPATH PATH="${PATH+$PATH:}/usr/sbin:/sbin" # set PATH so it includes user's private bin if it exists if [ -d ~/bin ] ; then PATH="~/bin${PATH+:$PATH}" fi export PATH EDITOR=vim export EDITOR You can find more bash customization tips, such as , in . The bash-completion package enables programmable completion for bash.

In the Unix-like environment, there are few key strokes which have special meanings. Please note that on a normal Linux character console, only the left-hand Ctrl and Alt keys work as expected. Here are few notable key strokes to remember. key description of key binding Ctrl-U erase line before cursor Ctrl-H erase a character before cursor Ctrl-D terminate input (exit shell if you are using shell) Ctrl-C terminate a running program Ctrl-Z temporarily stop program by moving it to the background job Ctrl-S halt output to screen Ctrl-Q reactivate output to screen Ctrl-Alt-Del reboot/halt the system, see inittab5 Left-Alt-key (optionally, Windows-key) meta-key for Emacs and the similar UI Up-arrow start command history search under bash Ctrl-R start incremental command history search under bash Tab complete input of the filename to the command line under bash Ctrl-V Tab input Tab without expansion to the command line under bash The terminal feature of Ctrl-S can be disabled using stty1.

Unix style mouse operations are based on the 3 button mouse system. action response Left-click-and-drag mouse select and copy to the clipboard Left-click select the start of selection Right-click select the end of selection and copy to the clipboard Middle-click paste clipboard at the cursor The center wheel on the modern wheel mouse is considered middle mouse button and can be used for middle-click. Clicking left and right mouse buttons together serves as the middle-click under the 2 button mouse system situation. In order to use a mouse in Linux character consoles, you need to have gpm8 running as daemon.

The less1 command is the enhanced pager (file content browser). It reads the file specified by its command argument or its standard input. Hit "h" if you need help while browsing with the less command. It can do much more than more1 and can be supercharged by executing "eval $(lesspipe)" or "eval $(lessfile)" in the shell startup script. See more in "/usr/share/doc/less/LESSOPEN". The "-R" option allows raw character output and enables ANSI color escape sequences. See less1.

You should become proficient in one of variants of Vim or Emacs programs which are popular in the Unix-like system. I think getting used to Vim commands is the right thing to do, since Vi-editor is always there in the Linux/Unix world. (Actually, original vi or new nvi are programs you find everywhere. I chose Vim instead for newbie since it offers you help through F1 key while it is similar enough and more powerful.) If you chose either Emacs or XEmacs instead as your choice of the editor, that is another good choice indeed, particularly for programming. Emacs has a plethora of other features as well, including functioning as a newsreader, directory editor, mail program, etc. When used for programming or editing shell scripts, it intelligently recognizes the format of what you are working on, and tries to provide assistance. Some people maintain that the only program they need on Linux is Emacs. Ten minutes learning Emacs now can save hours later. Having the GNU Emacs manual for reference when learning Emacs is highly recommended. All these programs usually come with tutoring program for you to learn them by practice. Start Vim by typing "vim" and press F1-key. You should at least read the first 35 lines. Then do the online training course by moving cursor to "|tutor|" and pressing Ctrl-]. Good editors, such as Vim and Emacs, can handle UTF-8 and other exotic encoding texts correctly. It is a good idea to use the X environment in the UTF-8 locale and to install required programs and fonts to it. Editors have options to set the file encoding independent of the X environment. Please refer to their documentation on multibyte text.

Debian comes with a number of different editors. We recommend to install the vim package, as mentioned above. Debian provides unified access to the system default editor via command "/usr/bin/editor" so other programs (e.g., reportbug1) can invoke it. You can change it by the following. $ sudo update-alternatives --config editor The choice "/usr/bin/vim.basic" over "/usr/bin/vim.tiny" is my recommendation for newbies since it supports syntax highlighting. Many programs use the environment variables "$EDITOR" or "$VISUAL" to decide which editor to use (see and ). For the consistency on the Debian system, set these to "/usr/bin/editor". (Historically, "$EDITOR" was "ed" and "$VISUAL" was "vi".)

You can customize vim1 behavior by "~/.vimrc". For example, try the following " ------------------------------- " Local configuration " set nocompatible set nopaste set pastetoggle=<f2> syn on if $USER == "root" set nomodeline set noswapfile else set modeline set swapfile endif " filler to avoid the line above being recognized as a modeline " filler " filler

The output of the shell command may roll off your screen and may be lost forever. It is a good practice to log shell activities into the file for you to review them later. This kind of record is essential when you perform any system administration tasks. The basic method of recording the shell activity is to run it under script1. For example, try the following $ script Script started, file is typescript Do whatever shell commands under script. Press Ctrl-D to exit script. $ vim typescript See .

Let's learn basic Unix commands. Here I use "Unix" in its generic sense. Any Unix clone OSs usually offer equivalent commands. The Debian system is no exception. Do not worry if some commands do not work as you wish now. If alias is used in the shell, its corresponding command outputs are different. These examples are not meant to be executed in this order. Try all following commands from the non-privileged user account. command description pwd display name of current/working directory whoami display current user name id display current user identity (name, uid, gid, and associated groups) file <foo> display a type of file for the file "<foo>" type -p <commandname> display a file location of command "<commandname>" which <commandname> , , type <commandname> display information on command "<commandname>" apropos <key-word> find commands related to "<key-word>" man -k <key-word> , , whatis <commandname> display one line explanation on command "<commandname>" man -a <commandname> display explanation on command "<commandname>" (Unix style) info <commandname> display rather long explanation on command "<commandname>" (GNU style) ls list contents of directory (non-dot files and directories) ls -a list contents of directory (all files and directories) ls -A list contents of directory (almost all files and directories, i.e., skip ".." and ".") ls -la list all contents of directory with detail information ls -lai list all contents of directory with inode number and detail information ls -d list all directories under the current directory tree display file tree contents lsof <foo> list open status of file "<foo>" lsof -p <pid> list files opened by the process ID: "<pid>" mkdir <foo> make a new directory "<foo>" in the current directory rmdir <foo> remove a directory "<foo>" in the current directory cd <foo> change directory to the directory "<foo>" in the current directory or in the directory listed in the variable "$CDPATH" cd / change directory to the root directory cd change directory to the current user's home directory cd /<foo> change directory to the absolute path directory "/<foo>" cd .. change directory to the parent directory cd ~<foo> change directory to the home directory of the user "<foo>" cd - change directory to the previous directory </etc/motd pager display contents of "/etc/motd" using the default pager touch <junkfile> create a empty file "<junkfile>" cp <foo> <bar> copy a existing file "<foo>" to a new file "<bar>" rm <junkfile> remove a file "<junkfile>" mv <foo> <bar> rename an existing file "<foo>" to a new name "<bar>" ("<bar>" must not exist) mv <foo> <bar> move an existing file "<foo>" to a new location "<bar>/<foo>" (the directory "<bar>" must exist) mv <foo> <bar>/<baz> move an existing file "<foo>" to a new location with a new name "<bar>/<baz>" (the directory "<bar>" must exist but the directory "<bar>/<baz>" must not exist) chmod 600 <foo> make an existing file "<foo>" to be non-readable and non-writable by the other people (non-executable for all) chmod 644 <foo> make an existing file "<foo>" to be readable but non-writable by the other people (non-executable for all) chmod 755 <foo> make an existing file "<foo>" to be readable but non-writable by the other people (executable for all) find . -name <pattern> find matching filenames using shell "<pattern>" (slower) locate -d . <pattern> find matching filenames using shell "<pattern>" (quicker using regularly generated database) grep -e "<pattern>" *.html find a "<pattern>" in all files ending with ".html" in current directory and display them all top display process information using full screen, type "q" to quit ps aux | pager display information on all the running processes using BSD style output ps -ef | pager display information on all the running processes using Unix system-V style output ps aux | grep -e "[e]xim4*" display all processes running "exim" and "exim4" ps axf | pager display information on all the running processes with ASCII art output kill <1234> kill a process identified by the process ID: "<1234>" gzip <foo> compress "<foo>" to create "<foo>.gz" using the Lempel-Ziv coding (LZ77) gunzip <foo>.gz decompress "<foo>.gz" to create "<foo>" bzip2 <foo> compress "<foo>" to create "<foo>.bz2" using the Burrows-Wheeler block sorting text compression algorithm, and Huffman coding (better compression than gzip) bunzip2 <foo>.bz2 decompress "<foo>.bz2" to create "<foo>" xz <foo> compress "<foo>" to create "<foo>.xz" using the Lempel–Ziv–Markov chain algorithm (better compression than bzip2) unxz <foo>.xz decompress "<foo>.xz" to create "<foo>" tar -xvf <foo>.tar extract files from "<foo>.tar" archive tar -xvzf <foo>.tar.gz extract files from gzipped "<foo>.tar.gz" archive tar -xvjf <foo>.tar.bz2 extract files from "<foo>.tar.bz2" archive tar -xvJf <foo>.tar.xz extract files from "<foo>.tar.xz" archive tar -cvf <foo>.tar <bar>/ archive contents of folder "<bar>/" in "<foo>.tar" archive tar -cvzf <foo>.tar.gz <bar>/ archive contents of folder "<bar>/" in compressed "<foo>.tar.gz" archive tar -cvjf <foo>.tar.bz2 <bar>/ archive contents of folder "<bar>/" in "<foo>.tar.bz2" archive tar -cvJf <foo>.tar.xz <bar>/ archive contents of folder "<bar>/" in "<foo>.tar.xz" archive zcat README.gz | pager display contents of compressed "README.gz" using the default pager zcat README.gz > foo create a file "foo" with the decompressed content of "README.gz" zcat README.gz >> foo append the decompressed content of "README.gz" to the end of the file "foo" (if it does not exist, create it first) Unix has a tradition to hide filenames which start with ".". They are traditionally files that contain configuration information and user preferences. For cd command, see builtins7. The default pager of the bare bone Debian system is more1 which cannot scroll back. By installing the less package using command line "apt-get install less", less1 becomes default pager and you can scroll back with cursor keys. The "[" and "]" in the regular expression of the "ps aux | grep -e "[e]xim4*"" command above enable grep to avoid matching itself. The "4*" in the regular expression means 0 or more repeats of character "4" thus enables grep to match both "exim" and "exim4". Although "*" is used in the shell filename glob and the regular expression, their meanings are different. Learn the regular expression from grep1. Please traverse directories and peek into the system using the above commands as training. If you have questions on any of console commands, please make sure to read the manual page. For example, try the following $ man man $ man bash $ man builtins $ man grep $ man ls The style of man pages may be a little hard to get used to, because they are rather terse, particularly the older, very traditional ones. But once you get used to it, you come to appreciate their succinctness. Please note that many Unix-like commands including ones from GNU and BSD display brief help information if you invoke them in one of the following ways (or without any arguments in some cases). $ <commandname> --help $ <commandname> -h

Now you have some feel on how to use the Debian system. Let's look deep into the mechanism of the command execution in the Debian system. Here, I have simplified reality for the newbie. See bash1 for the exact explanation. A simple command is a sequence of components. Variable assignments (optional) Command name Arguments (optional) Redirections (optional: > , >> , < , << , etc.) Control operator (optional: && , || , <newline> , ; , & , ( , ) )

The values of some environment variables change the behavior of some Unix commands. Default values of environment variables are initially set by the PAM system and then some of them may be reset by some application programs. The display manager such as gdm3 resets environment variables. The shell in its start up codes resets environment variables in "~/.bash_profile" and "~/.bashrc".

The full locale value given to "$LANG" variable consists of 3 parts: "xx_YY.ZZZZ". locale value meaning xx ISO 639 language codes (lower case) such as "en" YY ISO 3166 country codes (upper case) such as "US" ZZZZ codeset, always set to "UTF-8" For language codes and country codes, see pertinent description in the "info gettext". For the codeset on the modern Debian system, you should always set it to UTF-8 unless you specifically want to use the historic one with good reason and background knowledge. For fine details of the locale configuration, see . The "LANG=en_US" is not "LANG=C" nor "LANG=en_US.UTF-8". It is "LANG=en_US.ISO-8859-1" (see ). locale recommendation Language (area) en_US.UTF-8 English (USA) en_GB.UTF-8 English (Great Britain) fr_FR.UTF-8 French (France) de_DE.UTF-8 German (Germany) it_IT.UTF-8 Italian (Italy) es_ES.UTF-8 Spanish (Spain) ca_ES.UTF-8 Catalan (Spain) sv_SE.UTF-8 Swedish (Sweden) pt_BR.UTF-8 Portuguese (Brazil) ru_RU.UTF-8 Russian (Russia) zh_CN.UTF-8 Chinese (P.R. of China) zh_TW.UTF-8 Chinese (Taiwan R.O.C.) ja_JP.UTF-8 Japanese (Japan) ko_KR.UTF-8 Korean (Republic of Korea) vi_VN.UTF-8 Vietnamese (Vietnam) Typical command execution uses a shell line sequence as the following. $ date Sun Jun 3 10:27:39 JST 2007 $ LANG=fr_FR.UTF-8 date dimanche 3 juin 2007, 10:27:33 (UTC+0900) Here, the program date1 is executed with different values of the environment variable "$LANG". For the first command, "$LANG" is set to the system default locale value "en_US.UTF-8". For the second command, "$LANG" is set to the French UTF-8 locale value "fr_FR.UTF-8". Most command executions usually do not have preceding environment variable definition. For the above example, you can alternatively execute as the following. $ LANG=fr_FR.UTF-8 $ date dimanche 3 juin 2007, 10:27:33 (UTC+0900) As you can see here, the output of command is affected by the environment variable to produce French output. If you want the environment variable to be inherited to subprocesses (e.g., when calling shell script), you need to export it instead by the following. $ export LANG When you use a typical console terminal, the "$LANG" environment variable is usually set to be exported by the desktop environment. So the above is not really a good example to test the effect of export. When filing a bug report, running and checking the command under "LANG=en_US.UTF-8" is a good idea if you use non-English environment. See locale5 and locale7 for "$LANG" and related environment variables. I recommend you to configure the system environment just by the "$LANG" variable and to stay away from "$LC_*" variables unless it is absolutely needed.

When you type a command into the shell, the shell searches the command in the list of directories contained in the "$PATH" environment variable. The value of the "$PATH" environment variable is also called the shell's search path. In the default Debian installation, the "$PATH" environment variable of user accounts may not include "/sbin" and "/usr/sbin". For example, the ifconfig command needs to be issued with full path as "/sbin/ifconfig". (Similar ip command is located in "/bin".) You can change the "$PATH" environment variable of Bash shell by "~/.bash_profile" or "~/.bashrc" files.

Many commands stores user specific configuration in the home directory and changes their behavior by their contents. The home directory is identified by the environment variable "$HOME". value of "$HOME" program execution situation / program run by the init process (daemon) /root program run from the normal root shell /home/<normal_user> program run from the normal user shell /home/<normal_user> program run from the normal user GUI desktop menu /home/<normal_user> program run as root with "sudo program" /root program run as root with "sudo -H program" Shell expands "~/" to current user's home directory, i.e., "$HOME/". Shell expands "~foo/" to foo's home directory, i.e., "/home/foo/".

Some commands take arguments. Arguments starting with "-" or "--" are called options and control the behavior of the command. $ date Mon Oct 27 23:02:09 CET 2003 $ date -R Mon, 27 Oct 2003 23:02:40 +0100 Here the command-line argument "-R" changes date1 behavior to output RFC2822 compliant date string.

Often you want a command to work with a group of files without typing all of them. The filename expansion pattern using the shell glob, (sometimes referred as wildcards), facilitate this need. shell glob pattern description of match rule * filename (segment) not started with "." .* filename (segment) started with "." ? exactly one character […] exactly one character with any character enclosed in brackets [a-z] exactly one character with any character between "a" and "z" [^…] exactly one character other than any character enclosed in brackets (excluding "^") For example, try the following $ mkdir junk; cd junk; touch 1.txt 2.txt 3.c 4.h .5.txt ..6.txt $ echo *.txt 1.txt 2.txt $ echo * 1.txt 2.txt 3.c 4.h $ echo *.[hc] 3.c 4.h $ echo .* . .. .5.txt ..6.txt $ echo .*[^.]* .5.txt ..6.txt $ echo [^1-3]* 4.h $ cd ..; rm -rf junk See glob7. Unlike normal filename expansion by the shell, the shell pattern "*" tested in find1 with "-name" test etc., matches the initial "." of the filename. (New POSIX feature) BASH can be tweaked to change its glob behavior with its shopt builtin options such as "dotglob", "noglob", "nocaseglob", "nullglob", "extglob", etc. See bash1.

Each command returns its exit status (variable: "$?") as the return value. command exit status numeric return value logical return value success zero, 0 TRUE error non-zero, -1 FALSE For example, try the following. $ [ 1 = 1 ] ; echo $? 0 $ [ 1 = 2 ] ; echo $? 1 Please note that, in the logical context for the shell, success is treated as the logical TRUE which has 0 (zero) as its value. This is somewhat non-intuitive and needs to be reminded here.

Let's try to remember following shell command idioms typed in one line as a part of shell command. command idiom description command & background execution of command in the subshell command1 | command2 pipe the standard output of command1 to the standard input of command2 (concurrent execution) command1 2>&1 | command2 pipe both standard output and standard error of command1 to the standard input of command2 (concurrent execution) command1 ; command2 execute command1 and command2 sequentially command1 && command2 execute command1; if successful, execute command2 sequentially (return success if both command1 and command2 are successful) command1 || command2 execute command1; if not successful, execute command2 sequentially (return success if command1 or command2 are successful) command > foo redirect standard output of command to a file foo (overwrite) command 2> foo redirect standard error of command to a file foo (overwrite) command >> foo redirect standard output of command to a file foo (append) command 2>> foo redirect standard error of command to a file foo (append) command > foo 2>&1 redirect both standard output and standard error of command to a file foo command < foo redirect standard input of command to a file foo command << delimiter redirect standard input of command to the following lines until "delimiter" is met (here document) command <<- delimiter redirect standard input of command to the following lines until "delimiter" is met (here document, the leading tab characters are stripped from input lines) The Debian system is a multi-tasking system. Background jobs allow users to run multiple programs in a single shell. The management of the background process involves the shell builtins: jobs, fg, bg, and kill. Please read sections of bash(1) under "SIGNALS", and "JOB CONTROL", and builtins1. For example, try the following $ </etc/motd pager $ pager </etc/motd $ pager /etc/motd $ cat /etc/motd | pager Although all 4 examples of shell redirections display the same thing, the last example runs an extra cat command and wastes resources with no reason. The shell allows you to open files using the exec builtin with an arbitrary file descriptor. $ echo Hello >foo $ exec 3<foo 4>bar # open files $ cat <&3 >&4 # redirect stdin to 3, stdout to 4 $ exec 3<&- 4>&- # close files $ cat bar Hello The file descriptor 0-2 are predefined. device description file descriptor stdin standard input 0 stdout standard output 1 stderr standard error 2

You can set an alias for the frequently used command. For example, try the following $ alias la='ls -la' Now, "la" works as a short hand for "ls -la" which lists all files in the long listing format. You can list any existing aliases by alias (see bash1 under "SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS"). $ alias ... alias la='ls -la' You can identity exact path or identity of the command by type (see bash1 under "SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS"). For example, try the following $ type ls ls is hashed (/bin/ls) $ type la la is aliased to ls -la $ type echo echo is a shell builtin $ type file file is /usr/bin/file Here ls was recently searched while "file" was not, thus "ls" is "hashed", i.e., the shell has an internal record for the quick access to the location of the "ls" command. See .

In Unix-like work environment, text processing is done by piping text through chains of standard text processing tools. This was another crucial Unix innovation.

There are few standard text processing tools which are used very often on the Unix-like system. No regular expression is used: cat1 concatenates files and outputs the whole content. tac1 concatenates files and outputs in reverse. cut1 selects parts of lines and outputs. head1 outputs the first part of files. tail1 outputs the last part of files. sort1 sorts lines of text files. uniq1 removes duplicate lines from a sorted file. tr1 translates or deletes characters. diff1 compares files line by line. Basic regular expression (BRE) is used: grep1 matches text with patterns. ed1 is a primitive line editor. sed1 is a stream editor. vim1 is a screen editor. emacs1 is a screen editor. (somewhat extended BRE) Extended regular expression (ERE) is used: egrep1 matches text with patterns. awk1 does simple text processing. tcl3tcl can do every conceivable text processing: See re_syntax3. Often used with tk3tk. perl1 can do every conceivable text processing. See perlre1. pcregrep1 from the pcregrep package matches text with Perl Compatible Regular Expressions (PCRE) pattern. python1 with the re module can do every conceivable text processing. See "/usr/share/doc/python/html/index.html". If you are not sure what exactly these commands do, please use "man command" to figure it out by yourself. Sort order and range expression are locale dependent. If you wish to obtain traditional behavior for a command, use C locale instead of UTF-8 ones by prepending command with "LANG=C" (see and ). Perl regular expressions (perlre1), Perl Compatible Regular Expressions (PCRE), and Python regular expressions offered by the re module have many common extensions to the normal ERE.

Regular expressions are used in many text processing tools. They are analogous to the shell globs, but they are more complicated and powerful. The regular expression describes the matching pattern and is made up of text characters and metacharacters. A metacharacter is just a character with a special meaning. There are 2 major styles, BRE and ERE, depending on the text tools as described above. BRE ERE description of the regular expression \ . [ ] ^ $ * \ . [ ] ^ $ * common metacharacters \+ \? \( \) \{ \} \|   BRE only "\" escaped metacharacters   + ? ( ) { } | ERE only non-"\" escaped metacharacters c c match non-metacharacter "c" \c \c match a literal character "c" even if "c" is metacharacter by itself . . match any character including newline ^ ^ position at the beginning of a string $ $ position at the end of a string \< \< position at the beginning of a word \> \> position at the end of a word [abc…] [abc…] match any characters in "abc…" [^abc…] [^abc…] match any characters except in "abc…" r* r* match zero or more regular expressions identified by "r" r\+ r+ match one or more regular expressions identified by "r" r\? r? match zero or one regular expressions identified by "r" r1\|r2 r1|r2 match one of the regular expressions identified by "r1" or "r2" \(r1\|r2\) (r1|r2) match one of the regular expressions identified by "r1" or "r2" and treat it as a bracketed regular expression The regular expression of emacs is basically BRE but has been extended to treat "+"and "?" as the metacharacters as in ERE. Thus, there are no needs to escape them with "\" in the regular expression of emacs. grep1 can be used to perform the text search using the regular expression. For example, try the following $ egrep 'GNU.*LICENSE|Yoyodyne' /usr/share/common-licenses/GPL GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program See .

For the replacement expression, some characters have special meanings. replacement expression description of the text to replace the replacement expression & what the regular expression matched (use \& in emacs) \n what the n-th bracketed regular expression matched ("n" being number) For Perl replacement string, "$&" is used instead of "&" and "$n" is used instead of "\n". For example, try the following $ echo zzz1abc2efg3hij4 | \ sed -e 's/\(1[a-z]*\)[0-9]*\(.*\)$/=&=/' zzz=1abc2efg3hij4= $ echo zzz1abc2efg3hij4 | \ sed -e 's/\(1[a-z]*\)[0-9]*\(.*\)$/\2===\1/' zzzefg3hij4===1abc $ echo zzz1abc2efg3hij4 | \ perl -pe 's/(1[a-z]*)[0-9]*(.*)$/$2===$1/' zzzefg3hij4===1abc $ echo zzz1abc2efg3hij4 | \ perl -pe 's/(1[a-z]*)[0-9]*(.*)$/=$&=/' zzz=1abc2efg3hij4= Here please pay extra attention to the style of the bracketed regular expression and how the matched strings are used in the text replacement process on different tools. These regular expressions can be used for cursor movements and text replacement actions in some editors too. The back slash "\" at the end of line in the shell commandline escapes newline as a white space character and continues shell command line input to the next line. Please read all the related manual pages to learn these commands.

The ed1 command can replace all instances of "FROM_REGEX" with "TO_TEXT" in "file". $ ed file <<EOF ,s/FROM_REGEX/TO_TEXT/g w q EOF The sed1 command can replace all instances of "FROM_REGEX" with "TO_TEXT" in "file". $ sed -i -e 's/FROM_REGEX/TO_TEXT/g' file The vim1 command can replace all instances of "FROM_REGEX" with "TO_TEXT" in "file" by using ex1 commands. $ vim '+%s/FROM_REGEX/TO_TEXT/gc' '+w' '+q' file The "c" flag in the above ensures interactive confirmation for each substitution. Multiple files ("file1", "file2", and "file3") can be processed with regular expressions similarly with vim1 or perl1. $ vim '+argdo %s/FROM_REGEX/TO_TEXT/ge|update' '+q' file1 file2 file3 The "e" flag in the above prevents the "No match" error from breaking a mapping. $ perl -i -p -e 's/FROM_REGEX/TO_TEXT/g;' file1 file2 file3 In the perl(1) example, "-i" is for the in-place editing of each target file, and "-p" is for the implicit loop over all given files. Use of argument "-i.bak" instead of "-i" keeps each original file by adding ".bak" to its filename. This makes recovery from errors easier for complex substitutions. ed1 and vim1 are BRE; perl1 is ERE.

Let's consider a text file called "DPL" in which some pre-2004 Debian project leader's names and their initiation date are listed in a space-separated format. Ian Murdock August 1993 Bruce Perens April 1996 Ian Jackson January 1998 Wichert Akkerman January 1999 Ben Collins April 2001 Bdale Garbee April 2002 Martin Michlmayr March 2003 See "A Brief History of Debian" for the latest Debian leadership history. Awk is frequently used to extract data from these types of files. For example, try the following $ awk '{ print $3 }' <DPL # month started August April January January April April March $ awk '($1=="Ian") { print }' <DPL # DPL called Ian Ian Murdock August 1993 Ian Jackson January 1998 $ awk '($2=="Perens") { print $3,$4 }' <DPL # When Perens started April 1996 Shells such as Bash can be also used to parse this kind of file. For example, try the following $ while read first last month year; do echo $month done <DPL ... same output as the first Awk example Here, the read builtin command uses characters in "$IFS" (internal field separators) to split lines into words. If you change "$IFS" to ":", you can parse "/etc/passwd" with shell nicely. $ oldIFS="$IFS" # save old value $ IFS=':' $ while read user password uid gid rest_of_line; do if [ "$user" = "bozo" ]; then echo "$user's ID is $uid" fi done < /etc/passwd bozo's ID is 1000 $ IFS="$oldIFS" # restore old value (If Awk is used to do the equivalent, use "FS=':'" to set the field separator.) IFS is also used by the shell to split results of parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion. These do not occur within double or single quoted words. The default value of IFS is <space>, <tab>, and <newline> combined. Be careful about using this shell IFS tricks. Strange things may happen, when shell interprets some parts of the script as its input. $ IFS=":," # use ":" and "," as IFS $ echo IFS=$IFS, IFS="$IFS" # echo is a Bash builtin IFS= , IFS=:, $ date -R # just a command output Sat, 23 Aug 2003 08:30:15 +0200 $ echo $(date -R) # sub shell --> input to main shell Sat 23 Aug 2003 08 30 36 +0200 $ unset IFS # reset IFS to the default $ echo $(date -R) Sat, 23 Aug 2003 08:30:50 +0200

The following scripts do nice things as a part of a pipe. script snippet (type in one line) effect of command find /usr -print find all files under "/usr" seq 1 100 print 1 to 100 | xargs -n 1 <command> run command repeatedly with each item from pipe as its argument | xargs -n 1 echo split white-space-separated items from pipe into lines | xargs echo merge all lines from pipe into a line | grep -e <regex_pattern> extract lines from pipe containing <regex_pattern> | grep -v -e <regex_pattern> extract lines from pipe not containing <regex_pattern> | cut -d: -f3 - extract third field from pipe separated by ":" (passwd file etc.) | awk '{ print $3 }' extract third field from pipe separated by whitespaces | awk -F'\t' '{ print $3 }' extract third field from pipe separated by tab | col -bx remove backspace and expand tabs to spaces | expand - expand tabs | sort| uniq sort and remove duplicates | tr 'A-Z' 'a-z' convert uppercase to lowercase | tr -d '\n' concatenate lines into one line | tr -d '\r' remove CR | sed 's/^/# /' add "#" to the start of each line | sed 's/\.ext//g' remove ".ext" | sed -n -e 2p print the second line | head -n 2 - print the first 2 lines | tail -n 2 - print the last 2 lines A one-line shell script can loop over many files using find1 and xargs1 to perform quite complicated tasks. See and . When using the shell interactive mode becomes too complicated, please consider to write a shell script (see ).

This chapter is written assuming the latest stable release is codename: @-@codename-stable@-@. Debian is a volunteer organization which builds consistent distributions of pre-compiled binary packages of free software and distributes them from its archive. The Debian archive is offered by many remote mirror sites for access through HTTP and FTP methods. It is also available as CD-ROM/DVD. The Debian package management system, when used properly, offers the user to install consistent sets of binary packages to the system from the archive. Currently, there are @-@all-packages@-@ packages available for the @-@arch@-@ architecture. The Debian package management system has a rich history and many choices for the front end user program and back end archive access method to be used. Currently, we recommend the following. apt8 for all interactive command line operations, including package installation, removal and dist-upgrades. Available since Debian Jessie (Debian 8). apt-get8 for calling Debian package management system from scripts. It is also a fallback option when apt is not available (often with older Debian systems). aptitude8 for an interactive text interface to manage the installed packages and to search the available packages. package popcon size description apt @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Advanced Packaging Tool (APT), front-end for dpkg providing "http", "ftp", and "file" archive access methods (apt/apt-get/apt-cache commands included) aptitude @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ interactive terminal-based package manager with aptitude8 tasksel @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ tool for selecting tasks for installation on the Debian system (front-end for APT) unattended-upgrades @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ enhancement package for APT to enable automatic installation of security upgrades dselect @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ terminal-based package manager (previous standard, front-end for APT and other old access methods) dpkg @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ package management system for Debian synaptic @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ graphical package manager (GNOME front-end for APT) apt-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ APT utility programs: apt-extracttemplates1, apt-ftparchive1, and apt-sortpkgs1 apt-listchanges @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ package change history notification tool apt-listbugs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ lists critical bugs before each APT installation apt-file @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ APT package searching utility — command-line interface apt-rdepends @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ recursively lists package dependencies

Here are some key points for package configuration on the Debian system. The manual configuration by the system administrator is respected. In other words, the package configuration system makes no intrusive configuration for the sake of convenience. Each package comes with its own configuration script with standardized user interface called debconf7 to help initial installation process of the package. Debian Developers try their best to make your upgrade experience flawless with package configuration scripts. Full functionalities of packaged software are available to the system administrator. But ones with security risks are disabled in the default installation. If you manually activate a service with some security risks, you are responsible for the risk containment. Esoteric configuration may be manually enabled by the system administrator. This may create interference with popular generic helper programs for the system configuration.

Do not install packages from random mixture of suites. It probably breaks the package consistency which requires deep system management knowledge, such as compiler ABI, library version, interpreter features, etc. The newbie Debian system administrator should stay with the stable release of Debian while applying only security updates. I mean that some of the following valid actions are better avoided, as a precaution, until you understand the Debian system very well. Here are some reminders. Do not include testing or unstable in "/etc/apt/sources.list". Do not mix standard Debian with other non-Debian archives such as Ubuntu in "/etc/apt/sources.list". Do not create "/etc/apt/preferences". Do not change default behavior of package management tools through configuration files without knowing their full impacts. Do not install random packages by "dpkg -i <random_package>". Do not ever install random packages by "dpkg --force-all -i <random_package>". Do not erase or alter files in "/var/lib/dpkg/". Do not overwrite system files by installing software programs directly compiled from source. Install them into "/usr/local" or "/opt", if needed. The non-compatible effects caused by above actions to the Debian package management system may leave your system unusable. The serious Debian system administrator who runs mission critical servers, should use extra precautions. Do not install any packages including security updates from Debian without thoroughly testing them with your particular configuration under safe conditions. You as the system administrator are responsible for your system in the end. The long stability history of the Debian system is no guarantee by itself.

Despite my warnings above, I know many readers of this document wish to run the testing or unstable suites of Debian as their main system for self-administered Desktop environments. This is because they work very well, are updated frequently, and offer the latest features. For your production server, the stable suite with the security updates is recommended. The same can be said for desktop PCs on which you can spend limited administration efforts. It takes no more than simply setting the distribution string in the "/etc/apt/sources.list" to the suite name: "testing" or "unstable"; or the codename: "@-@codename-testing@-@" or "@-@codename-unstable@-@". This makes you live the life of eternal upgrades. The use of testing or unstable is a lot of fun but comes with some risks. Even though the unstable suite of the Debian system looks very stable for most of the times, there have been some package problems on the testing and unstable suite of the Debian system and a few of them were not so trivial to resolve. It may be quite painful for you. Sometimes, you may have a broken package or missing functionality for a few weeks. Here are some ideas to ensure quick and easy recovery from bugs in Debian packages. Make the system dual bootable by installing the stable suite of the Debian system to another partition Make the installation CD handy for the rescue boot Consider installing apt-listbugs to check the Debian Bug Tracking System (BTS) information before the upgrade Learn the package system infrastructure enough to work around the problem Create a chroot or similar environment and run the latest system in it in advance (see ) (If you can not do any one of these precautionary actions, you are probably not ready for the testing and unstable suites.) Enlightenment with the following saves a person from the eternal karmic struggle of upgrade hell and let him reach Debian nirvana.

Let's look into the Debian archive from a system user's perspective. Official policy of the Debian archive is defined at Debian Policy Manual, Chapter 2 - The Debian Archive. For the typical HTTP access, the archive is specified in the "/etc/apt/sources.list" file as the following, e.g. for the current stable = @-@codename-stable@-@ system. deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ @-@codename-stable@-@ main contrib non-free deb-src http://deb.debian.org/debian/ @-@codename-stable@-@ main contrib non-free deb http://security.debian.org/ @-@codename-stable@-@/updates main contrib deb-src http://security.debian.org/ @-@codename-stable@-@/updates main contrib Here, I tend to use codename "@-@codename-stable@-@" instead of suite name "stable" to avoid surprises when the next stable is released. The meaning of "/etc/apt/sources.list" is described in sources.list5 and key points are followings. The "deb" line defines for the binary packages. The "deb-src" line defines for the source packages. The 1st argument is the root URL of the Debian archive. The 2nd argument is the distribution name: either the suite name or the codename. The 3rd and following arguments are the list of valid archive area names of the Debian archive. The "deb-src" lines can safely be omitted (or commented out by placing "#" at the start of the line) if it is just for aptitude which does not access source related meta data. It speeds up the updates of the archive meta data. The URL can be "http://", "ftp://", "file://", …. If "sid" is used in the above example instead of "@-@codename-stable@-@", the "deb: http://security.debian.org/ …" line for security updates in the "/etc/apt/sources.list" is not required. This is because there is no security update archive for "sid" (unstable). Here is the list of URL of the Debian archive sites and suite name or codename used in the configuration file. archive URL suite name (codename) purpose http://deb.debian.org/debian/ stable (@-@codename-stable@-@) stable (@-@codename-stable@-@) release http://deb.debian.org/debian/ testing (@-@codename-testing@-@) testing (@-@codename-testing@-@) release http://deb.debian.org/debian/ unstable (@-@codename-unstable@-@) unstable (@-@codename-unstable@-@) release http://deb.debian.org/debian/ experimental experimental pre-release (optional, only for developer) http://deb.debian.org/debian/ stable-proposed-updates Updates for the next stable point release (optional) http://security.debian.org/ stable/updates security updates for stable release (important) http://security.debian.org/ testing/updates security updates for testing release (important) http://deb.debian.org/debian/ @-@codename-stable@-@-updates compatible updates for spam filter, IM clients, etc. for @-@codename-stable@-@ http://deb.debian.org/debian/ @-@codename-stable@-@-backports newer backported packages for @-@codename-stable@-@ (optional) Only pure stable release with security updates provides the best stability. Running mostly stable release mixed with some packages from testing or unstable release is riskier than running pure unstable release for library version mismatch etc. If you really need the latest version of some programs under stable release, please use packages from @-@codename-stable@-@-updates and http://backports.debian.org (see ) services. These services must be used with extra care. You should basically list only one of stable, testing, or unstable suites in the "deb" line. If you list any combination of stable, testing, and unstable suites in the "deb" line, APT programs slow down while only the latest archive is effective. Multiple listing makes sense for these when the "/etc/apt/preferences" file is used with clear objectives (see ). For the Debian system with the stable and testing suites, it is a good idea to include lines with "http://security.debian.org/" in the "/etc/apt/sources.list" to enable security updates as in the example above. The security bugs for the stable archive are fixed by the Debian security team. This activity has been quite rigorous and reliable. Those for the testing archive may be fixed by the Debian testing security team. For several reasons, this activity is not as rigorous as that for stable and you may need to wait for the migration of fixed unstable packages. Those for the unstable archive are fixed by the individual maintainer. Actively maintained unstable packages are usually in a fairly good shape by leveraging latest upstream security fixes. See Debian security FAQ for how Debian handles security bugs. area number of packages criteria of package component main @-@main-packages@-@ DFSG compliant and no dependency to non-free contrib @-@contrib-packages@-@ DFSG compliant but having dependency to non-free non-free @-@non-free-packages@-@ not DFSG compliant Here the number of packages in the above is for the @-@arch@-@ architecture. The main area provides the Debian system (see ). The Debian archive organization can be studied best by pointing your browser to the each archive URL appended with dists or pool. The distribution is referred by two ways, the suite or codename. The word distribution is alternatively used as the synonym to the suite in many documentations. The relationship between the suite and the codename can be summarized as the following. Timing suite = stable suite = testing suite = unstable after the @-@codename-stable@-@ release codename = @-@codename-stable@-@ codename = @-@codename-testing@-@ codename = sid after the @-@codename-testing@-@ release codename = @-@codename-testing@-@ codename = @-@codename-nexttesting@-@ codename = sid The history of codenames are described in Debian FAQ: 6.2.1 Which other codenames have been used in the past? In the stricter Debian archive terminology, the word "section" is specifically used for the categorization of packages by the application area. (Although, the word "main section" may sometimes be used to describe the Debian archive area named as "main".) Every time a new upload is done by a Debian developer (DD) to the unstable archive (via incoming processing), the DD is required to ensure uploaded packages to be compatible with the latest set of packages in the latest unstable archive. If DD breaks this compatibility intentionally for important library upgrade etc, there is usually announcement to the debian-devel mailing list etc. Before a set of packages are moved by the Debian archive maintenance script from the unstable archive to the testing archive, the archive maintenance script not only checks the maturity (about 10 days old) and the status of the RC bug reports for the packages but also tries to ensure them to be compatible with the latest set of packages in the testing archive. This process makes the testing archive very current and usable. Through the gradual archive freeze process led by the release team, the testing archive is matured to make it completely consistent and bug free with some manual interventions. Then the new stable release is created by assigning the codename for the old testing archive to the new stable archive and creating the new codename for the new testing archive. The initial contents of the new testing archive is exactly the same as that of the newly released stable archive. Both the unstable and the testing archives may suffer temporary glitches due to several factors. Broken package upload to the archive (mostly for unstable) Delay of accepting the new packages to the archive (mostly for unstable) Archive synchronization timing issue (both for testing and unstable) Manual intervention to the archive such as package removal (more for testing) etc. So if you ever decide to use these archives, you should be able to fix or work around these kinds of glitches. For about few months after a new stable release, most desktop users should use the stable archive with its security updates even if they usually use unstable or testing archives. For this transition period, both unstable and testing archives are not good for most people. Your system is difficult to keep in good working condition with the unstable archive since it suffers surges of major upgrades for core packages. The testing archive is not useful either since it contains mostly the same content as the stable archive without its security support (Debian testing-security-announce 2008-12). After a month or so, the unstable archive may be usable if you are careful. When tracking the testing archive, a problem caused by a removed package is usually worked around by installing corresponding package from the unstable archive which is uploaded for bug fix. See Debian Policy Manual for archive definitions. "Sections" "Priorities" "Base system" "Essential packages"

Debian is 100% free software because of the followings: Debian installs only free software by default to respect user's freedoms. Debian provides only free software in main. Debian recommends running only free software from main. No packages in main depend nor recommend packages in non-free nor contrib. Some people wonder if the following 2 facts contradict or not. "Debian will remain 100% free". (First term of Debian Social Contract) Debian servers host some non-free and contrib packages. These do not contradict, because of the followings. The Debian system is 100% free and its packages are hosted by Debian servers in the main area. Packages outside of the Debian system are hosted by Debian servers in the non-free and contrib areas. These are precisely explained in the 4th and 5th terms of Debian Social Contract: Our priorities are our users and free software We will be guided by the needs of our users and the free software community. We will place their interests first in our priorities. We will support the needs of our users for operation in many different kinds of computing environments. We will not object to non-free works that are intended to be used on Debian systems, or attempt to charge a fee to people who create or use such works. We will allow others to create distributions containing both the Debian system and other works, without any fee from us. In furtherance of these goals, we will provide an integrated system of high-quality materials with no legal restrictions that would prevent such uses of the system. Works that do not meet our free software standards We acknowledge that some of our users require the use of works that do not conform to the Debian Free Software Guidelines. We have created "contrib" and "non-free" areas in our archive for these works. The packages in these areas are not part of the Debian system, although they have been configured for use with Debian. We encourage CD manufacturers to read the licenses of the packages in these areas and determine if they can distribute the packages on their CDs. Thus, although non-free works are not a part of Debian, we support their use and provide infrastructure for non-free packages (such as our bug tracking system and mailing lists). Users should be aware of the risks of using packages in the non-free and contrib areas: lack of freedom for such software packages lack of support from Debian on such software packages (Debian can't support software properly without having access to its source code.) contamination of your 100% free Debian system The Debian Free Software Guidelines are the free software standards for Debian. Debian interprets "software" in the widest scope including document, firmware, logo, and artwork data in the package. This makes Debian's free software standards very strict ones. In order to meet this strict free software standards required for main, Debian once unbranded Mozilla software packages such as Firefox, Thunderbird, and Seamonkey by removing their logo and some artwork data; and ships them as Iceweasel, Icedove, and Iceape, respectively. Those packages have restored their original names with the release of Debian Stretch (Debian 9) after those problems get solved. Typical non-free and contrib packages include freely distributable packages of following types: Document packages under GNU Free Documentation License with invariant sections such as ones for GCC and Make. (mostly found in the non-free/doc section.) Firmware packages containing sourceless binary data such as ones listed in as non-free. (mostly found in the non-free/kernel section.) Game and font packages with restriction on commercial use and/or content modification. Please note that the number of non-free and contrib packages is less than 2% of that of main packages. Enabling access to the non-free and contrib areas does not obscure the source of packages. Interactive full screen use of aptitude8 provides you with full visibility and control over what packages are installed from which area to keep your system as free as you wish.

The Debian system offers a consistent set of binary packages through its versioned binary dependency declaration mechanism in the control file fields. Here is a bit over simplified definition for them. "Depends" This declares an absolute dependency and all of the packages listed in this field must be installed at the same time or in advance. "Pre-Depends" This is like Depends, except that it requires completed installation of the listed packages in advance. "Recommends" This declares a strong, but not absolute, dependency. Most users would not want the package unless all of the packages listed in this field are installed. "Suggests" This declares a weak dependency. Many users of this package may benefit from installing packages listed in this field but can have reasonable functions without them. "Enhances" This declares a week dependency like Suggests but works in the opposite direction. "Breaks" This declares a package incompatibility usually with some version specification. Generally the resolution is to upgrade all of the packages listed in this field. "Conflicts" This declares an absolute incompatibility. All of the packages listed in this field must be removed to install this package. "Replaces" This is declared when files installed by this package replace files in the listed packages. "Provides" This is declared when this package provide all of the files and functionality in the listed packages. Please note that defining "Provides", "Conflicts" and "Replaces" simultaneously to an virtual package is the sane configuration. This ensures that only one real package providing this virtual package can be installed at any one time. The official definition including source dependency can be found in the Policy Manual: Chapter 7 - Declaring relationships between packages.

Here is a summary of the simplified event flow of the package management by APT. Update ("apt update", "aptitude update" or "apt-get update"): Fetch archive metadata from remote archive Reconstruct and update local metadata for use by APT Upgrade ("apt upgrade" and "apt full-upgrade", or "aptitude safe-upgrade" and "aptitude full-upgrade", or "apt-get upgrade" and "apt-get dist-upgrade"): Chose candidate version which is usually the latest available version for all installed packages (see for exception) Make package dependency resolution Fetch selected binary packages from remote archive if candidate version is different from installed version Unpack fetched binary packages Run preinst script Install binary files Run postinst script Install ("apt install …", aptitude install …" or "apt-get install …"): Chose packages listed on the command line Make package dependency resolution Fetch selected binary packages from remote archive Unpack fetched binary packages Run preinst script Install binary files Run postinst script Remove ("apt remove …", "aptitude remove …" or "apt-get remove …"): Chose packages listed on the command line Make package dependency resolution Run prerm script Remove installed files except configuration files Run postrm script Purge ("apt purge", "aptitude purge …" or "apt-get purge …"): Chose packages listed on the command line Make package dependency resolution Run prerm script Remove installed files including configuration files Run postrm script Here, I intentionally skipped technical details for the sake of big picture.

You should read the fine official documentation. The first document to read is the Debian specific "/usr/share/doc/<package_name>/README.Debian". Other documentation in "/usr/share/doc/<package_name>/" should be consulted too. If you set shell as , type the following. $ cd <package_name> $ pager README.Debian $ mc You may need to install the corresponding documentation package named with "-doc" suffix for detailed information. If you are experiencing problems with a specific package, make sure to check out the Debian bug tracking system (BTS) sites, first. web site command Home page of the Debian bug tracking system (BTS) sensible-browser "http://bugs.debian.org/" The bug report of a known package name sensible-browser "http://bugs.debian.org/<package_name>" The bug report of known bug number sensible-browser "http://bugs.debian.org/<bug_number>" Search Google with search words including "site:debian.org", "site:wiki.debian.org", "site:lists.debian.org", etc. When you file a bug report, please use reportbug1 command.

Repository based package management operations on the Debian system can be performed by many APT-based package management tools available on the Debian system. Here, we explain 3 basic package management tools: apt, apt-get / apt-cache and aptitude. For the package management operation which involves package installation or updates package metadata, you need to have root privilege.

Although aptitude is a very nice interactive tool which the author mainly uses, you should know some cautionary facts: The aptitude command is not recommended for the release-to-release system upgrade on the stable Debian system after the new release. The use of "apt full-upgrade" or "apt-get dist-upgrade" is recommended for it. See Bug #411280. The aptitude command sometimes suggests mass package removals for the system upgrade on the testing or unstable Debian system. This situation has frightened many system administrators. Don't panic. This seems to be caused mostly by the version skew among packages depended or recommended by a meta-package such as gnome-core. This can be resolved by selecting "Cancel pending actions" in the aptitude command menu, exiting aptitude, and using "apt full-upgrade". The apt-get and apt-cache commands are the most basic APT-based package management tools. apt-get and apt-cache offer only the commandline user interface. apt-get is most suitable for the major system upgrade between releases, etc. apt-get offers a robust package dependency resolver. apt-get is less demanding on hardware resources. It consumes less memory and runs faster. apt-cache offers a standard regex based search on the package name and description. apt-get and apt-cache can manage multiple versions of packages using /etc/apt/preferences but it is quite cumbersome. The apt command is a high-level commandline interface for package management. It is basically a wrapper of apt-get, apt-cache and similar commands, originally intended as an end-user interface and enables some options better suited for interactive usage by default. apt provides a friendly progress bar when installing packages using apt install. apt will remove cached .deb packages by default after sucessful installation of downloaded packages. Users are recommended to use the new apt8 command for interactive usage and use the apt-get8 and apt-cache8 commands in the shell script. The aptitude command is the most versatile APT-based package management tool. aptitude offers the fullscreen interactive text user interface. aptitude offers the commandline user interface, too. aptitude is most suitable for the daily interactive package management such as inspecting installed packages and searching available packages. aptitude is more demanding on hardware resources. It consumes more memory and runs slower. aptitude offers an enhanced regex based search on all of the package metadata. aptitude can manage multiple versions of packages without using /etc/apt/preferences and it is quite intuitive.

Here are basic package management operations with the commandline using apt8, aptitude8 and apt-get8 /apt-cache8. apt syntax aptitude syntax apt-get/apt-cache syntax description apt update aptitude update apt-get update update package archive metadata apt install foo aptitude install foo apt-get install foo install candidate version of "foo" package with its dependencies apt upgrade aptitude safe-upgrade apt-get upgrade install candidate version of installed packages without removing any other packages apt full-upgrade aptitude full-upgrade apt-get dist-upgrade install candidate version of installed packages while removing other packages if needed apt remove foo aptitude remove foo apt-get remove foo remove "foo" package while leaving its configuration files apt autoremove N/A apt-get autoremove remove auto-installed packages which are no longer required apt purge foo aptitude purge foo apt-get purge foo purge "foo" package with its configuration files apt clean aptitude clean apt-get clean clear out the local repository of retrieved package files completely apt autoclean aptitude autoclean apt-get autoclean clear out the local repository of retrieved package files for outdated packages apt show foo aptitude show foo apt-cache show foo display detailed information about "foo" package apt search <regex> aptitude search <regex> apt-cache search <regex> search packages which match <regex> N/A aptitude why <regex> N/A explain the reason why <regex> matching packages should be installed N/A aptitude why-not <regex> N/A explain the reason why <regex> matching packages can not be installed N/A aptitude search '~i!~M' apt-mark showmanual list manually installed packages Although the aptitude command comes with rich features such as its enhanced package resolver, this complexity has caused (or may still causes) some regressions such as Bug #411123, Bug #514930, and Bug #570377. In case of doubt, please use the apt, apt-get and apt-cache commands over the aptitude command. Since apt / apt-get and aptitude share auto-installed package status (see ) after lenny, you can mix these tools without major troubles (see Bug #594490). The "aptitude why <regex>" can list more information by "aptitude -v why <regex>". Similar information can be obtained by "apt rdepends <package>" or "apt-cache rdepends <package>". When aptitude command is started in the commandline mode and faces some issues such as package conflicts, you can switch to the full screen interactive mode by pressing "e"-key later at the prompt. You may provide command options right after "aptitude". command option description -s simulate the result of the command -d download only but no install/upgrade -D show brief explanations before the automatic installations and removals See aptitude8 and "aptitude user's manual" at "/usr/share/doc/aptitude/README" for more. The dselect package is still available and was the preferred full screen interactive package management tool in previous releases.

For the interactive package management, you start aptitude in interactive mode from the console shell prompt as follows. $ sudo aptitude -u Password: This updates the local copy of the archive information and display the package list in the full screen with menu. Aptitude places its configuration at "~/.aptitude/config". If you want to use root's configuration instead of user's one, use "sudo -H aptitude …" instead of "sudo aptitude …" in the above expression. Aptitude automatically sets pending actions as it is started interactively. If you do not like it, you can reset it from menu: "Action" → "Cancel pending actions".

Notable key strokes to browse status of packages and to set "planned action" on them in this full screen mode are the following. key key binding F10 or Ctrl-t menu ? display help for keystroke (more complete listing) F10 → Help → User's Manual display User's Manual u update package archive information + mark the package for the upgrade or the install - mark the package for the remove (keep configuration files) _ mark the package for the purge (remove configuration files) = place the package on hold U mark all upgradable packages (function as full-upgrade) g start downloading and installing selected packages q quit current screen and save changes x quit current screen and discard changes Enter view information about a package C view a package's changelog l change the limit for the displayed packages / search for the first match \ repeat the last search The file name specification of the command line and the menu prompt after pressing "l" and "//" take the aptitude regex as described below. Aptitude regex can explicitly match a package name using a string started by "~n and followed by the package name. You need to press "U" to get all the installed packages upgraded to the candidate version in the visual interface. Otherwise only the selected packages and certain packages with versioned dependency to them are upgraded to the candidate version.

In the interactive full screen mode of aptitude8, packages in the package list are displayed as the next example. idA libsmbclient -2220kB 3.0.25a-1 3.0.25a-2 Here, this line means from the left as the following. The "current state" flag (the first letter) The "planned action" flag (the second letter) The "automatic" flag (the third letter) The Package name The change in disk space usage attributed to "planned action" The current version of the package The candidate version of the package The full list of flags are given at the bottom of Help screen shown by pressing "?". The candidate version is chosen according to the current local preferences (see apt_preferences5 and ). Several types of package views are available under the menu "Views". view status description of view Package View Good see (default) Audit Recommendations Good list packages which are recommended by some installed packages but not yet installed Flat Package List Good list packages without categorization (for use with regex) Debtags Browser Very usable list packages categorized according to their debtags entries Categorical Browser Deprecated list packages categorized according to their category (use Debtags Browser, instead) Please help us improving tagging packages with debtags! The standard "Package View" categorizes packages somewhat like dselect with few extra features. category description of view Upgradable Packages list packages organized as section → area → package New Packages , , Installed Packages , , Not Installed Packages , , Obsolete and Locally Created Packages , , Virtual Packages list packages with the same function Tasks list packages with different functions generally needed for a task Tasks view can be used to cherry pick packages for your task.

Aptitude offers several options for you to search packages using its regex formula. Shell commandline: "aptitude search '<aptitude_regex>'" to list installation status, package name and short description of matching packages "aptitude show '<package_name>'" to list detailed description of the package Interactive full screen mode: "l" to limit package view to matching packages "/" for search to a matching package "\" for backward search to a matching package "n" for find-next "N" for find-next (backward) The string for <package_name> is treated as the exact string match to the package name unless it is started explicitly with "~" to be the regex formula.

The aptitude regex formula is mutt-like extended ERE (see ) and the meanings of the aptitude specific special match rule extensions are as follows. description of the extended match rule regex formula match on package name ~n<regex_name> match on description ~d<regex_description> match on task name ~t<regex_task> match on debtag ~G<regex_debtag> match on maintainer ~m<regex_maintainer> match on package section ~s<regex_section> match on package version ~V<regex_version> match archive ~A{@-@codename-stable@-@,@-@codename-testing@-@,sid} match origin ~O{debian,…} match priority ~p{extra,important,optional,required,standard} match essential packages ~E match virtual packages ~v match new packages ~N match with pending action ~a{install,upgrade,downgrade,remove,purge,hold,keep} match installed packages ~i match installed packages with A-mark (auto installed packages) ~M match installed packages without A-mark (administrator selected packages) ~i!~M match installed and upgradable packages ~U match removed but not purged packages ~c match removed, purged or can-be-removed packages ~g match packages declaring a broken dependency ~b match packages declaring broken dependency of <type> ~B<type> match <pattern> packages declaring dependency of <type> ~D[<type>:]<pattern> match <pattern> packages declaring broken dependency of <type> ~DB[<type>:]<pattern> match packages to which the <pattern> matching package declares dependency <type> ~R[<type>:]<pattern> match packages to which the <pattern> matching package declares broken dependency <type> ~RB[<type>:]<pattern> match packages to which some other installed packages depend on ~R~i match packages to which no other installed packages depend on !~R~i match packages to which some other installed packages depend or recommend on ~R~i|~Rrecommends:~i match <pattern> package with filtered version ~S filter <pattern> match all packages (true) ~T match no packages (false) ~F The regex part is the same ERE as the one used in typical Unix-like text tools using "^", ".*", "$" etc. as in egrep1, awk1 and perl1. The dependency <type> is one of (depends, predepends, recommends, suggests, conflicts, replaces, provides) specifying the package interrelationship. The default dependency <type> is "depends". When <regex_pattern> is a null string, place "~T" immediately after the command. Here are some short cuts. "~P<term>" == "~Dprovides:<term>" "~C<term>" == "~Dconflicts:<term>" "…~W term" == "(…|term)" Users familiar with mutt pick up quickly, as mutt was the inspiration for the expression syntax. See "SEARCHING, LIMITING, AND EXPRESSIONS" in the "User's Manual" "/usr/share/doc/aptitude/README". With the lenny version of aptitude8, the new long form syntax such as "?broken" may be used for regex matching in place for its old short form equivalent "~b". Now space character " " is considered as one of the regex terminating character in addition to tilde character "~". See "User's Manual" for the new long form syntax.

The selection of a package in aptitude not only pulls in packages which are defined in its "Depends:" list but also defined in the "Recommends:" list if the menu "F10 → Options → Preferences → Dependency handling" is set accordingly. These auto installed packages are removed automatically if they are no longer needed under aptitude. The flag controlling the "auto install" behavior of the aptitude command can also be manipulated using the apt-mark8 command from the apt package.

You can check package activity history in the log files. file content /var/log/dpkg.log Log of dpkg level activity for all package activities /var/log/apt/term.log Log of generic APT activity /var/log/aptitude Log of aptitude command activity In reality, it is not so easy to get meaningful understanding quickly out from these logs. See for easier way.

Here are few examples of aptitude8 operations.

The following command lists packages with regex matching on package names. $ aptitude search '~n(pam|nss).*ldap' p libnss-ldap - NSS module for using LDAP as a naming service p libpam-ldap - Pluggable Authentication Module allowing LDAP interfaces This is quite handy for you to find the exact name of a package.

The regex "~dipv6" in the "New Flat Package List" view with "l" prompt, limits view to packages with the matching description and let you browse their information interactively.

You can purge all remaining configuration files of removed packages. Check results of the following command. # aptitude search '~c' If you think listed packages are OK to be purged, execute the following command. # aptitude purge '~c' You may want to do the similar in the interactive mode for fine grained control. You provide the regex "~c" in the "New Package View" view with "l" prompt. This limits the package view only to regex matched packages, i.e., "removed but not purged". All these regex matched packages can be shown by pressing "[" at top level headings. Then you press "_" at top level headings such as "Not Installed Packages". Only regex matched packages under the heading are marked to be purged by this. You can exclude some packages to be purged by pressing "=" interactively for each of them. This technique is quite handy and works for many other command keys.

Here is how I tidy auto/manual install status for packages (after using non-aptitude package installer etc.). Start aptitude in interactive mode as root. Type "u", "U", "f" and "g" to update and upgrade package list and packages. Type "l" to enter the package display limit as "~i(~R~i|~Rrecommends:~i)" and type "M" over "Installed Packages" as auto installed. Type "l" to enter the package display limit as "~prequired|~pimportant|~pstandard|~E" and type "m" over "Installed Packages" as manual installed. Type "l" to enter the package display limit as "~i!~M" and remove unused package by typing "-" over each of them after exposing them by typing "[" over "Installed Packages". Type "l", to enter the package display limit as "~i"; then type "m" over "Tasks", to mark that packages as manual installed. Exit aptitude. Start "apt-get -s autoremove|less" as root to check what are not used. Restart aptitude in interactive mode and mark needed packages as "m". Restart "apt-get -s autoremove|less" as root to recheck REMOVED contain only expected packages. Start "apt-get autoremove|less" as root to autoremove unused packages. The "m" action over "Tasks" is an optional one to prevent mass package removal situation in future.

When moving to a new release etc, you should consider to perform a clean installation of new system even though Debian is upgradable as described below. This provides you a chance to remove garbages collected and exposes you to the best combination of latest packages. Of course, you should make a full backup of system to a safe place (see ) before doing this. I recommend to make a dual boot configuration using different partition to have the smoothest transition. You can perform system wide upgrade to a newer release by changing contents of the "/etc/apt/sources.list" file pointing to a new release and running the "apt update; apt dist-upgrade" command. To upgrade from stable to testing or unstable, you replace "@-@codename-stable@-@" in the "/etc/apt/sources.list" example of with "@-@codename-testing@-@" or "sid". In reality, you may face some complications due to some package transition issues, mostly due to package dependencies. The larger the difference of the upgrade, the more likely you face larger troubles. For the transition from the old stable to the new stable after its release, you can read its new Release Notes and follow the exact procedure described in it to minimize troubles. When you decide to move from stable to testing before its formal release, there are no Release Notes to help you. The difference between stable and testing could have grown quite large after the previous stable release and makes upgrade situation complicated. You should make precautionary moves for the full upgrade while gathering latest information from mailing list and using common senses. Read previous "Release Notes". Backup entire system (especially data and configuration information). Have bootable media handy for broken bootloader. Inform users on the system well in advance. Record upgrade activity with script1. Apply "unmarkauto" to required packages, e.g., "aptitude unmarkauto vim", to prevent removal. Minimize installed packages to reduce chance of package conflicts, e.g., remove desktop task packages. Remove the "/etc/apt/preferences" file (disable apt-pinning). Try to upgrade step wise: oldstable → stable → testing → unstable. Update the "/etc/apt/sources.list" file to point to new archive only and run "aptitude update". Install, optionally, new core packages first, e.g., "aptitude install perl". Run the "apt-get -s dist-upgrade" command to assess impact. Run the "apt-get dist-upgrade" command at last. It is not wise to skip major Debian release when upgrading between stable releases. In previous "Release Notes", GCC, Linux Kernel, initrd-tools, Glibc, Perl, APT tool chain, etc. have required some special attention for system wide upgrade. For daily upgrade in unstable, see .

Here are list of other package management operations for which aptitude is too high-level or lacks required functionalities. command action COLUMNS=120 dpkg -l <package_name_pattern> list status of an installed package for the bug report dpkg -L <package_name> list contents of an installed package dpkg -L <package_name> | egrep '/usr/share/man/man.*/.+' list manpages for an installed package dpkg -S <file_name_pattern> list installed packages which have matching file name apt-file search <file_name_pattern> list packages in archive which have matching file name apt-file list <package_name_pattern> list contents of matching packages in archive dpkg-reconfigure <package_name> reconfigure the exact package dpkg-reconfigure -p=low <package_name> reconfigure the exact package with the most detailed question configure-debian reconfigure packages from the full screen menu dpkg --audit audit system for partially installed packages dpkg --configure -a configure all partially installed packages apt-cache policy <binary_package_name> show available version, priority, and archive information of a binary package apt-cache madison <package_name> show available version, archive information of a package apt-cache showsrc <binary_package_name> show source package information of a binary package apt-get build-dep <package_name> install required packages to build package aptitude build-dep <package_name> install required packages to build package apt-get source <package_name> download a source (from standard archive) dget <URL for dsc file> download a source packages (from other archive) dpkg-source -x <package_name>_<version>-<debian_version>.dsc build a source tree from a set of source packages ("*.orig.tar.gz" and "*.debian.tar.gz"/"*.diff.gz") debuild binary build package(s) from a local source tree make-kpkg kernel_image build a kernel package from a kernel source tree make-kpkg --initrd kernel_image build a kernel package from a kernel source tree with initramfs enabled dpkg -i <package_name>_<version>-<debian_version>_<arch>.deb install a local package to the system apt install /path/to/<package_filename>.deb install a local package to the system, meanwhile try to resolve dependency automatically debi <package_name>_<version>-<debian_version>_<arch>.dsc install local package(s) to the system dpkg --get-selections '*' >selection.txt save dpkg level package selection state information dpkg --set-selections <selection.txt set dpkg level package selection state information echo <package_name> hold | dpkg --set-selections set dpkg level package selection state for a package to hold (equivalent to "aptitude hold <package_name>") For a package with the multi-arch feature, you may need to specify the architecture name for some commands. For example, use "dpkg -L libglib2.0-0:amd64" to list contents of the libglib2.0-0 package for the amd64 architecture. Lower level package tools such as "dpkg -i …" and "debi …" should be carefully used by the system administrator. It does not automatically take care required package dependencies. Dpkg's commandline options "--force-all" and similar (see dpkg1) are intended to be used by experts only. Using them without fully understanding their effects may break your whole system. Please note the following. All system configuration and installation commands require to be run from root. Unlike aptitude which uses regex (see ), other package management commands use pattern like shell glob (see ). apt-file1 provided by the apt-file package must run "apt-file update" in advance. configure-debian8 provided by the configure-debian package runs dpkg-reconfigure8 as its backend. dpkg-reconfigure8 runs package scripts using debconf1 as its backend. "apt-get build-dep", "apt-get source" and "apt-cache showsrc" commands require "deb-src" entry in "/etc/apt/sources.list". dget1, debuild1, and debi1 require devscripts package. See (re)packaging procedure using "apt-get source" in . make-kpkg command requires the kernel-package package (see ). See for general packaging.

The installation of debsums enables verification of installed package files against MD5sum values in the "/var/lib/dpkg/info/*.md5sums" file with debsums1. See for how MD5sum works. Because MD5sum database may be tampered by the intruder, debsums1 is of limited use as a security tool. It is only good for checking local modifications by the administrator or damage due to media errors.

Many users prefer to follow the unstable release of the Debian system for its new features and packages. This makes the system more prone to be hit by the critical package bugs. The installation of the apt-listbugs package safeguards your system against critical bugs by checking Debian BTS automatically for critical bugs when upgrading with APT system. The installation of the apt-listchanges package provides important news in "NEWS.Debian" when upgrading with APT system.

Although visiting Debian site https://packages.debian.org/ facilitates easy ways to search on the package meta data these days, let's look into more traditional ways. The grep-dctrl1, grep-status1, and grep-available1 commands can be used to search any file which has the general format of a Debian package control file. The "dpkg -S <file_name_pattern>" can be used search package names which contain files with the matching name installed by dpkg. But this overlooks files created by the maintainer scripts. If you need to make more elaborate search on the dpkg meta data, you need to run "grep -e regex_pattern *" command in the "/var/lib/dpkg/info/" directory. This makes you search words mentioned in package scripts and installation query texts. If you wish to look up package dependency recursively, you should use apt-rdepends8.

Let's learn how the Debian package management system works internally. This should help you to create your own solution to some package problems.

Meta data files for each distribution are stored under "dist/<codename>" on each Debian mirror sites, e.g., "http://deb.debian.org/debian/". Its archive structure can be browsed by the web browser. There are 6 types of key meta data. file location content Release top of distribution archive description and integrity information Release.gpg top of distribution signature file for the "Release" file signed with the archive key Contents-<architecture> top of distribution list of all files for all the packages in the pertinent archive Release top of each distribution/area/architecture combination archive description used for the rule of apt_preferences5 Packages top of each distribution/area/binary-architecture combination concatenated debian/control for binary packages Sources top of each distribution/area/source combination concatenated debian/control for source packages In the recent archive, these meta data are stored as the compressed and differential files to reduce network traffic.

The top level "Release" file is used for signing the archive under the secure APT system. Each suite of the Debian archive has a top level "Release" file, e.g., "http://deb.debian.org/debian/dists/unstable/Release", as follows. Origin: Debian Label: Debian Suite: unstable Codename: sid Date: Sat, 14 May 2011 08:20:50 UTC Valid-Until: Sat, 21 May 2011 08:20:50 UTC Architectures: alpha amd64 armel hppa hurd-i386 i386 ia64 kfreebsd-amd64 kfreebsd-i386 mips mipsel powerpc s390 sparc Components: main contrib non-free Description: Debian x.y Unstable - Not Released MD5Sum: bdc8fa4b3f5e4a715dd0d56d176fc789 18876880 Contents-alpha.gz 9469a03c94b85e010d116aeeab9614c0 19441880 Contents-amd64.gz 3d68e206d7faa3aded660dc0996054fe 19203165 Contents-armel.gz ... Here, you can find my rationale to use the "suite", and "codename" in . The "distribution" is used when referring to both "suite" and "codename". All archive "area" names offered by the archive are listed under "Components". The integrity of the top level "Release" file is verified by cryptographic infrastructure called the secure apt. The cryptographic signature file "Release.gpg" is created from the authentic top level "Release" file and the secret Debian archive key. The public Debian archive key can be seeded into "/etc/apt/trusted.gpg"; automatically by installing the keyring with the latest base-files package, or manually by gpg or apt-key tool with the latest public archive key posted on the ftp-master.debian.org . The secure APT system verifies the integrity of the downloaded top level "Release" file cryptographically by this "Release.gpg" file and the public Debian archive key in "/etc/apt/trusted.gpg". The integrity of all the "Packages" and "Sources" files are verified by using MD5sum values in its top level "Release" file. The integrity of all package files are verified by using MD5sum values in the "Packages" and "Sources" files. See debsums1 and . Since the cryptographic signature verification is a much more CPU intensive process than the MD5sum value calculation, use of MD5sum value for each package while using cryptographic signature for the top level "Release" file provides the good security with the performance (see ).

The archive level "Release" files are used for the rule of apt_preferences5. There are archive level "Release" files for all archive locations specified by "deb" line in "/etc/apt/sources.list", such as "http://deb.debian.org/debian/dists/unstable/main/binary-amd64/Release" or "http://deb.debian.org/debian/dists/sid/main/binary-amd64/Release" as follows. Archive: unstable Origin: Debian Label: Debian Component: main Architecture: amd64 For "Archive:" stanza, suite names ("stable", "testing", "unstable", …) are used in the Debian archive while codenames ("trusty", "xenial", "artful", …) are used in the Ubuntu archive. For some archives, such as experimental, and @-@codename-stable@-@-backports, which contain packages which should not be installed automatically, there is an extra line, e.g., "http://deb.debian.org/debian/dists/experimental/main/binary-amd64/Release" as follows. Archive: experimental Origin: Debian Label: Debian NotAutomatic: yes Component: main Architecture: amd64 Please note that for normal archives without "NotAutomatic: yes", the default Pin-Priority value is 500, while for special archives with "NotAutomatic: yes", the default Pin-Priority value is 1 (see apt_preferences5 and ).

When APT tools, such as aptitude, apt-get, synaptic, apt-file, auto-apt, … are used, we need to update the local copies of the meta data containing the Debian archive information. These local copies have following file names corresponding to the specified distribution, area, and architecture names in the "/etc/apt/sources.list" (see ). "/var/lib/apt/lists/deb.debian.org_debian_dists_<distribution>_Release" "/var/lib/apt/lists/deb.debian.org_debian_dists_<distribution>_Release.gpg" "/var/lib/apt/lists/deb.debian.org_debian_dists_<distribution>_<area>_binary-<architecture>_Packages" "/var/lib/apt/lists/deb.debian.org_debian_dists_<distribution>_<area>_source_Sources" "/var/cache/apt/apt-file/deb.debian.org_debian_dists_<distribution>_Contents-<architecture>.gz" (for apt-file) First 4 types of files are shared by all the pertinent APT commands and updated from command line by "apt-get update" or "aptitude update". The "Packages" meta data are updated if there is the "deb" line in "/etc/apt/sources.list". The "Sources" meta data are updated if there is the "deb-src" line in "/etc/apt/sources.list". The "Packages" and "Sources" meta data contain "Filename:" stanza pointing to the file location of the binary and source packages. Currently, these packages are located under the "pool/" directory tree for the improved transition over the releases. Local copies of "Packages" meta data can be interactively searched with the help of aptitude. The specialized search command grep-dctrl1 can search local copies of "Packages" and "Sources" meta data. Local copy of "Contents-<architecture>" meta data can be updated by "apt-file update" and its location is different from other 4 ones. See apt-file1. (The auto-apt uses different location for local copy of "Contents-<architecture>.gz" as default.)

In addition to the remotely fetched meta data, the APT tool after lenny stores its locally generated installation state information in the "/var/lib/apt/extended_states" which is used by all APT tools to track all auto installed packages.

In addition to the remotely fetched meta data, the aptitude command stores its locally generated installation state information in the "/var/lib/aptitude/pkgstates" which is used only by it.

All the remotely fetched packages via APT mechanism are stored in the "/var/cache/apt/archives" until they are cleaned. This cache file cleaning policy for aptitude can be set under "Options" → "Preferences" and it may be forced by its menu "Clean package cache" or "Clean obsolete files" under "Actions".

Debian package files have particular name structures. package type name structure The binary package (a.k.a deb) <package-name>_<epoch>:<upstream-version>-<debian.version>-<architecture>.deb The binary package for debian-installer (a.k.a udeb) <package-name>_<epoch>:<upstream-version>-<debian.version>-<architecture>.udeb The source package (upstream source) <package-name>_<epoch>:<upstream-version>-<debian.version>.orig.tar.gz The 1.0 source package (Debian changes) <package-name>_<epoch>:<upstream-version>-<debian.version>.diff.gz The 3.0 (quilt) source package (Debian changes) <package-name>_<epoch>:<upstream-version>-<debian.version>.debian.tar.gz The source package (description) <package-name>_<epoch>:<upstream-version>-<debian.version>.dsc Here only the basic source package formats are described. See more on dpkg-source1. name component usable characters (regex) existence <package-name> [a-z,A-Z,0-9,.,+,-]+ required <epoch>: [0-9]+: optional <upstream-version> [a-z,A-Z,0-9,.,+,-,:]+ required <debian.version> [a-z,A-Z,0-9,.,+,~]+ optional You can check package version order by dpkg1, e.g., "dpkg --compare-versions 7.0 gt 7.~pre1 ; echo $?" . The debian-installer (d-i) uses udeb as the file extension for its binary package instead of normal deb. An udeb package is a stripped down deb package which removes few non-essential contents such as documentation to save space while relaxing the package policy requirements. Both deb and udeb packages share the same package structure. The "u" stands for micro.

dpkg1 is the lowest level tool for the Debian package management. This is very powerful and needs to be used with care. While installing package called "<package_name>", dpkg process it in the following order. Unpack the deb file ("ar -x" equivalent) Execute "<package_name>.preinst" using debconf1 Install the package content to the system ("tar -x" equivalent) Execute "<package_name>.postinst" using debconf1 The debconf system provides standardized user interaction with I18N and L10N () supports. file description of contents /var/lib/dpkg/info/<package_name>.conffiles list of configuration files. (user modifiable) /var/lib/dpkg/info/<package_name>.list list of files and directories installed by the package /var/lib/dpkg/info/<package_name>.md5sums list of MD5 hash values for files installed by the package /var/lib/dpkg/info/<package_name>.preinst package script to be run before the package installation /var/lib/dpkg/info/<package_name>.postinst package script to be run after the package installation /var/lib/dpkg/info/<package_name>.prerm package script to be run before the package removal /var/lib/dpkg/info/<package_name>.postrm package script to be run after the package removal /var/lib/dpkg/info/<package_name>.config package script for debconf system /var/lib/dpkg/alternatives/<package_name> the alternative information used by the update-alternatives command /var/lib/dpkg/available the availability information for all the package /var/lib/dpkg/diversions the diversions information used by dpkg1 and set by dpkg-divert8 /var/lib/dpkg/statoverride the stat override information used by dpkg1 and set by dpkg-statoverride8 /var/lib/dpkg/status the status information for all the packages /var/lib/dpkg/status-old the first-generation backup of the "var/lib/dpkg/status" file /var/backups/dpkg.status* the second-generation backup and older ones of the "var/lib/dpkg/status" file The "status" file is also used by the tools such as dpkg1, "dselect update" and "apt-get -u dselect-upgrade". The specialized search command grep-dctrl1 can search the local copies of "status" and "available" meta data. In the debian-installer environment, the udpkg command is used to open udeb packages. The udpkg command is a stripped down version of the dpkg command.

The Debian system has mechanism to install somewhat overlapping programs peacefully using update-alternatives1. For example, you can make the vi command select to run vim while installing both vim and nvi packages. $ ls -l $(type -p vi) lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 20 2007-03-24 19:05 /usr/bin/vi -> /etc/alternatives/vi $ sudo update-alternatives --display vi ... $ sudo update-alternatives --config vi Selection Command ---------------------------------------------- 1 /usr/bin/vim *+ 2 /usr/bin/nvi Enter to keep the default[*], or type selection number: 1 The Debian alternatives system keeps its selection as symlinks in "/etc/alternatives/". The selection process uses corresponding file in "/var/lib/dpkg/alternatives/".

Stat overrides provided by the dpkg-statoverride8 command are a way to tell dpkg1 to use a different owner or mode for a file when a package is installed. If "--update" is specified and file exists, it is immediately set to the new owner and mode. The direct alteration of owner or mode for a file owned by the package using chmod or chown commands by the system administrator is reset by the next upgrade of the package. I use the word file here, but in reality this can be any filesystem object that dpkg handles, including directories, devices, etc.

File diversions provided by the dpkg-divert8 command are a way of forcing dpkg1 not to install a file into its default location, but to a diverted location. The use of dpkg-divert is meant for the package maintenance scripts. Its casual use by the system administrator is deprecated.

When running unstable system, the administrator is expected to recover from broken package management situation. Some methods described here are high risk actions. You have been warned!

If a desktop GUI program experienced instability after significant upstream version upgrade, you should suspect interferences with old local configuration files created by it. If it is stable under a newly created user account, this hypothesis is confirmed. (This is a bug of packaging and usually avoided by the packager.) To recover stability, you should move corresponding local configuration files and restart the GUI program. You may need to read old configuration file contents to recover configuration information later. (Do not erase them too quickly.)

Archive level package management systems, such as aptitude8 or apt-get1, do not even try to install packages with overlapped files using package dependencies (see ). Errors by the package maintainer or deployment of inconsistently mixed source of archives (see ) by the system administrator may create a situation with incorrectly defined package dependencies. When you install a package with overlapped files using aptitude8 or apt-get1 under such a situation, dpkg1 which unpacks package ensures to return error to the calling program without overwriting existing files. The use of third party packages introduces significant system risks via maintainer scripts which are run with root privilege and can do anything to your system. The dpkg1 command only protects against overwriting by the unpacking. You can work around such broken installation by removing the old offending package, <old-package>, first. $ sudo dpkg -P <old-package>

When a command in the package script returns error for some reason and the script exits with error, the package management system aborts their action and ends up with partially installed packages. When a package contains bugs in its removal scripts, the package may become impossible to remove and quite nasty. For the package script problem of "<package_name>", you should look into following package scripts. "/var/lib/dpkg/info/<package_name>.preinst" "/var/lib/dpkg/info/<package_name>.postinst" "/var/lib/dpkg/info/<package_name>.prerm" "/var/lib/dpkg/info/<package_name>.postrm" Edit the offending package script from the root using following techniques. disable the offending line by preceding "#" force to return success by appending the offending line with "|| true" Configure all partially installed packages with the following command. # dpkg --configure -a

Since dpkg is very low level package tool, it can function under the very bad situation such as unbootable system without network connection. Let's assume foo package was broken and needs to be replaced. You may still find cached copies of older bug free version of foo package in the package cache directory: "/var/cache/apt/archives/". (If not, you can download it from archive of https://snapshot.debian.org/ or copy it from package cache of a functioning machine.) If you can boot the system, you may install it by the following command. # dpkg -i /path/to/foo_<old_version>_<arch>.deb If system breakage is minor, you may alternatively downgrade the whole system as in using the higher level APT system. If your system is unbootable from hard disk, you should seek other ways to boot it. Boot the system using the debian-installer CD in rescue mode. Mount the unbootable system on the hard disk to "/target". Install older version of foo package by the following. # dpkg --root /target -i /path/to/foo_<old_version>_<arch>.deb This example works even if the dpkg command on the hard disk is broken. Any GNU/Linux system started by another system on hard disk, live GNU/Linux CD, bootable USB-key drive, or netboot can be used similarly to rescue broken system. If attempting to install a package this way fails due to some dependency violations and you really need to do this as the last resort, you can override dependency using dpkg's "--ignore-depends", "--force-depends" and other options. If you do this, you need to make serious effort to restore proper dependency later. See dpkg8 for details. If your system is seriously broken, you should make a full backup of system to a safe place (see ) and should perform a clean installation. This is less time consuming and produces better results in the end.

If "/var/lib/dpkg/status" becomes corrupt for any reason, the Debian system loses package selection data and suffers severely. Look for the old "/var/lib/dpkg/status" file at "/var/lib/dpkg/status-old" or "/var/backups/dpkg.status.*". Keeping "/var/backups/" in a separate partition may be a good idea since this directory contains lots of important system data. For serious breakage, I recommend to make fresh re-install after making backup of the system. Even if everything in "/var/" is gone, you can still recover some information from directories in "/usr/share/doc/" to guide your new installation. Reinstall minimal (desktop) system. # mkdir -p /path/to/old/system Mount old system at "/path/to/old/system/". # cd /path/to/old/system/usr/share/doc # ls -1 >~/ls1.txt # cd /usr/share/doc # ls -1 >>~/ls1.txt # cd # sort ls1.txt | uniq | less Then you are presented with package names to install. (There may be some non-package names such as "texmf".)

You can seek packages which satisfy your needs with aptitude from the package description or from the list under "Tasks". When you encounter more than 2 similar packages and wonder which one to install without "trial and error" efforts, you should use some common sense. I consider following points are good indications of preferred packages. Essential: yes > no Area: main > contrib > non-free Priority: required > important > standard > optional > extra Tasks: packages listed in tasks such as "Desktop environment" Packages selected by the dependency package (e.g., python2.4 by python) Popcon: higher in the vote and install number Changelog: regular updates by the maintainer BTS: No RC bugs (no critical, no grave, and no serious bugs) BTS: responsive maintainer to bug reports BTS: higher number of the recently fixed bugs BTS: lower number of remaining non-wishlist bugs Debian being a volunteer project with distributed development model, its archive contains many packages with different focus and quality. You must make your own decision what to do with them.

Installing packages from mixed source of archives is not supported by the official Debian distribution except for officially supported particular combinations of archives such as stable with security updates and @-@codename-stable@-@-updates. Here is an example of operations to include specific newer upstream version packages found in unstable while tracking testing for single occasion. Change the "/etc/apt/sources.list" file temporarily to single "unstable" entry. Run "aptitude update". Run "aptitude install <package-name>". Recover the original "/etc/apt/sources.list" file for testing. Run "aptitude update". You do not create the "/etc/apt/preferences" file nor need to worry about apt-pinning with this manual approach. But this is very cumbersome. When using mixed source of archives, you must ensure compatibility of packages by yourself since the Debian does not guarantee it. If package incompatibility exists, you may break system. You must be able to judge these technical requirements. The use of mixed source of random archives is completely optional operation and its use is not something I encourage you to use. General rules for installing packages from different archives are the following. Non-binary packages ("Architecture: all") are safer to install. documentation packages: no special requirements interpreter program packages: compatible interpreter must be available Binary packages (non "Architecture: all") usually face many road blocks and are unsafe to install. library version compatibility (including "libc") related utility program version compatibility Kernel ABI compatibility C++ ABI compatibility … In order to make a package to be safer to install, some commercial non-free binary program packages may be provided with completely statically linked libraries. You should still check ABI compatibility issues etc. for them. Except to avoid broken package for a short term, installing binary packages from officially unsupported archives is generally bad idea. This is true even if you use apt-pinning (see ). You should consider chroot or similar techniques (see ) to run programs from different archives.

Without the "/etc/apt/preferences" file, APT system choses the latest available version as the candidate version using the version string. This is the normal state and most recommended usage of APT system. All officially supported combinations of archives do not require the "/etc/apt/preferences" file since some archives which should not be used as the automatic source of upgrades are marked as NotAutomatic and dealt properly. The version string comparison rule can be verified with, e.g., "dpkg --compare-versions ver1.1 gt ver1.1~1; echo $?" (see dpkg1). When you install packages from mixed source of archives (see ) regularly, you can automate these complicated operations by creating the "/etc/apt/preferences" file with proper entries and tweaking the package selection rule for candidate version as described in apt_preferences5. This is called apt-pinning. Use of apt-pinning by a novice user is sure call for major troubles. You must avoid using apt-pinning except when you absolutely need it. When using apt-pinning, you must ensure compatibility of packages by yourself since the Debian does not guarantee it. The apt-pinning is completely optional operation and its use is not something I encourage you to use. Archive level Release files (see ) are used for the rule of apt_preferences5. Thus apt-pinning works only with "suite" name for normal Debian archives and security Debian archives. (This is different from Ubuntu archives.) For example, you can do "Pin: release a=unstable" but can not do "Pin: release a=sid" in the "/etc/apt/preferences" file. When you use non-Debian archive as a part of apt-pinning, you should check what they are intended for and also check their credibility. For example, Ubuntu and Debian are not meant to be mixed. Even if you do not create the "/etc/apt/preferences" file, you can do fairly complex system operations (see and ) without apt-pinning. Here is a simplified explanation of apt-pinning technique. The APT system choses the highest Pin-Priority upgrading package from available package sources defined in the "/etc/apt/sources.list" file as the candidate version package. If the Pin-Priority of the package is larger than 1000, this version restriction for upgrading is dropped to enable downgrading (see ). Pin-Priority value of each package is defined by "Pin-Priority" entries in the "/etc/apt/preferences" file or uses its default value. Pin-Priority apt-pinning effects to the package 1001 install the package even if this constitutes a downgrade of the package 990 used as the default for the target release archive 500 used as the default for the normal archive 100 used as the default for the NotAutomatic and ButAutomaticUpgrades archive 100 used for the installed package 1 used as the default for the NotAutomatic archive -1 never install the package even if recommended The target release archive can be set by several methods. "/etc/apt/apt.conf" configuration file with "APT::Default-Release "stable";" line command line option, e.g., "apt-get install -t testing some-package" The NotAutomatic and ButAutomaticUpgrades archive is set by archive server having its archive level Release file (see ) containing both "NotAutomatic: yes" and "ButAutomaticUpgrades: yes". The NotAutomatic archive is set by archive server having its archive level Release file containing only "NotAutomatic: yes". The apt-pinning situation of <package> from multiple archive sources is displayed by "apt-cache policy <package>". A line started with "Package pin:" lists the package version of pin if association just with <package> is defined, e.g., "Package pin: 0.190". No line with "Package pin:" exists if no association just with <package> is defined. The Pin-Priority value associated just with <package> is listed right side of all version strings, e.g., "0.181 700". "0" is listed right side of all version strings if no association just with <package> is defined, e.g., "0.181 0". The Pin-Priority values of archives (defined as "Package: *" in the "/etc/apt/preferences" file) are listed left side of all archive paths, e.g., "100 http://deb.debian.org/debian/ @-@codename-stable@-@-backports/main Packages".

There are @-@codename-stable@-@-updates and backports.debian.org archives which provide updgrade packages for stable (@-@codename-stable@-@). In order to use these archives, you list all required archives in the "/etc/apt/sources.list" file as the following. deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ @-@codename-stable@-@ main contrib non-free deb http://security.debian.org/ @-@codename-stable@-@/updates main contrib deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ @-@codename-stable@-@-updates main contrib non-free deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ @-@codename-stable@-@-backports main contrib non-free There is no need to set Pin-Priority value explicitly in the "/etc/apt/preferences" file. When newer packages become available, the default configuration provides most reasonable upgrades (see ). All installed older packages are upgraded to newer ones from @-@codename-stable@-@-updates. Only manually installed older packages from @-@codename-stable@-@-backports are upgraded to newer ones from @-@codename-stable@-@-backports. Whenever you wish to install a package named "<package-name>" with its dependency from @-@codename-stable@-@-backports archive manually, you use following command while switching target release with "-t" option. $ sudo apt-get install -t @-@codename-stable@-@-backports <package-name>

If you wish not to pull in particular packages automatically by "Recommends", you must create the "/etc/apt/preferences" file and explicitly list all those packages at the top of it as the following. Package: <package-1> Pin: version * Pin-Priority: -1 Package: <package-2> Pin: version * Pin-Priority: -1

Here is an example of apt-pinning technique to include specific newer upstream version packages found in unstable regularly upgraded while tracking testing. You list all required archives in the "/etc/apt/sources.list" file as the following. deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ testing main contrib non-free deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ unstable main contrib non-free deb http://security.debian.org/ testing/updates main contrib Set the "/etc/apt/preferences" file as the following. Package: * Pin: release a=unstable Pin-Priority: 100 When you wish to install a package named "<package-name>" with its dependencies from unstable archive under this configuration, you issue the following command which switches target release with "-t" option (Pin-Priority of unstable becomes 990). $ sudo apt-get install -t unstable <package-name> With this configuration, usual execution of "apt-get upgrade" and "apt-get dist-upgrade" (or "aptitude safe-upgrade" and "aptitude full-upgrade") upgrades packages which were installed from testing archive using current testing archive and packages which were installed from unstable archive using current unstable archive. Be careful not to remove "testing" entry from the "/etc/apt/sources.list" file. Without "testing" entry in it, APT system upgrades packages using newer unstable archive. I usually edit the "/etc/apt/sources.list" file to comment out "unstable" archive entry right after above operation. This avoids slow update process of having too many entries in the "/etc/apt/sources.list" file although this prevents upgrading packages which were installed from unstable archive using current unstable archive. If "Pin-Priority: 1" is used instead of "Pin-Priority: 100" in the "/etc/apt/preferences" file, already installed packages having Pin-Priority value of 100 are not upgraded by unstable archive even if "testing" entry in the "/etc/apt/sources.list" file is removed. If you wish to track particular packages in unstable automatically without initial "-t unstable" installation, you must create the "/etc/apt/preferences" file and explicitly list all those packages at the top of it as the following. Package: <package-1> Pin: release a=unstable Pin-Priority: 700 Package: <package-2> Pin: release a=unstable Pin-Priority: 700 These set Pin-Priority value for each specific package. For example, in order to track the latest unstable version of this "Debian Reference" in English, you should have following entries in the "/etc/apt/preferences" file. Package: debian-reference-en Pin: release a=unstable Pin-Priority: 700 Package: debian-reference-common Pin: release a=unstable Pin-Priority: 700 This apt-pinning technique is valid even when you are tracking stable archive. Documentation packages have been always safe to install from unstable archive in my experience, so far.

Here is another example of apt-pinning technique to include specific newer upstream version packages found in experimental while tracking unstable. You list all required archives in the "/etc/apt/sources.list" file as the following. deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ unstable main contrib non-free deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ experimental main contrib non-free deb http://security.debian.org/ testing/updates main contrib The default Pin-Priority value for experimental archive is always 1 (<<100) since it is NotAutomatic archive (see ). There is no need to set Pin-Priority value explicitly in the "/etc/apt/preferences" file just to use experimental archive unless you wish to track particular packages in it automatically for next upgrading.

The apt package comes with its own cron script "/etc/cron.daily/apt" to support the automatic download of packages. This script can be enhanced to perform the automatic upgrade of packages by installing the unattended-upgrades package. These can be customized by parameters in "/etc/apt/apt.conf.d/02backup" and "/etc/apt/apt.conf.d/50unattended-upgrades" as described in "/usr/share/doc/unattended-upgrades/README". The unattended-upgrades package is mainly intended for the security upgrade for the stable system. If the risk of breaking an existing stable system by the automatic upgrade is smaller than that of the system broken by the intruder using its security hole which has been closed by the security update, you should consider using this automatic upgrade with configuration parameters as the following. APT::Periodic::Update-Package-Lists "1"; APT::Periodic::Download-Upgradeable-Packages "1"; APT::Periodic::Unattended-Upgrade "1"; If you are running an unstable system, you do not want to use the automatic upgrade since it certainly breaks system some day. Even for such unstable case, you may still want to download packages in advance to save time for the interactive upgrade with configuration parameters as the following. APT::Periodic::Update-Package-Lists "1"; APT::Periodic::Download-Upgradeable-Packages "1"; APT::Periodic::Unattended-Upgrade "0";

If you want to limit the download bandwidth for APT to e.g. 800Kib/sec (=100kiB/sec), you should configure APT with its configuration parameter as the following. APT::Acquire::http::Dl-Limit "800";

Downgrading is not officially supported by the Debian by design. It should be done only as a part of emergency recovery process. Despite of this situation, it is known to work well in many incidents. For critical systems, you should backup all important data on the system after the recovery operation and re-install the new system from the scratch. You may be lucky to downgrade from newer archive to older archive to recover from broken system upgrade by manipulating candidate version (see ). This is lazy alternative to tedious actions of many "dpkg -i <broken-package>_<old-version>.deb" commands (see ). Search lines in the "/etc/apt/sources.list" file tracking unstable as the following. deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ @-@codename-unstable@-@ main contrib non-free Replace it with the following to track testing. deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ @-@codename-testing@-@ main contrib non-free Set the "/etc/apt/preferences" file as the following. Package: * Pin: release a=testing Pin-Priority: 1010 Run "apt-get update; apt-get dist-upgrade" to force downgrading of packages across the system. Remove this special "/etc/apt/preferences" file after this emergency downgrading. It is a good idea to remove (not purge!) as much packages to minimize dependency problems. You may need to manually remove and install some packages to get system downgraded. Linux kernel, bootloader, udev, PAM, APT, and networking related packages and their configuration files require special attention.

Although the maintainer name listed in "/var/lib/dpkg/available" and "/usr/share/doc/package_name/changelog" provide some information on "who is behind the packaging activity", the actual uploader of the package is somewhat obscure. who-uploads1 in the devscripts package identifies the actual uploader of Debian source packages.

If you are to compile a program from source to replace the Debian package, it is best to make it into a real local debianized package (*.deb) and use private archive. If you chose to compile a program from source and to install them under "/usr/local" instead, you may need to use equivs as a last resort to satisfy the missing package dependency. Package: equivs Priority: optional Section: admin Description: Circumventing Debian package dependencies This package provides a tool to create trivial Debian packages. Typically these packages contain only dependency information, but they can also include normal installed files like other packages do. . One use for this is to create a metapackage: a package whose sole purpose is to declare dependencies and conflicts on other packages so that these will be automatically installed, upgraded, or removed. . Another use is to circumvent dependency checking: by letting dpkg think a particular package name and version is installed when it isn't, you can work around bugs in other packages' dependencies. (Please do still file such bugs, though.)

For partial upgrades of the stable system, rebuilding a package within its environment using the source package is desirable. This avoids massive package upgrades due to their dependencies. Add the following entries to the "/etc/apt/sources.list" of a stable system. deb-src http://deb.debian.org/debian unstable main contrib non-free Install required packages for the compilation and download the source package as the following. # apt-get update # apt-get dist-upgrade # apt-get install fakeroot devscripts build-essential # apt-get build-dep foo $ apt-get source foo $ cd foo* Update some tool chain packages such as dpkg, and debhelper from the backport packages if they are required for the backporting. Execute the following. $ dch -i Bump package version, e.g. one appended with "+bp1" in "debian/changelog" Build packages and install them to the system as the following. $ debuild $ cd .. # debi foo*.changes

Since mirroring whole subsection of Debian archive wastes disk space and network bandwidth, deployment of a local proxy server for APT is desirable consideration when you administer many systems on LAN. APT can be configure to use generic web (http) proxy servers such as squid (see ) as described in apt.conf5 and in "/usr/share/doc/apt/examples/configure-index.gz". The "$http_proxy" environment variable can be used to override proxy server setting in the "/etc/apt/apt.conf" file. There are proxy tools specially for Debian archive. You should check BTS before using them. package popcon size description approx @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ caching proxy server for Debian archive files (compiled OCaml program) apt-cacher @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Caching proxy for Debian package and source files (Perl program) apt-cacher-ng @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Caching proxy for distribution of software packages (compiled C++ program) When Debian reorganizes its archive structure, these specialized proxy tools tend to require code rewrites by the package maintainer and may not be functional for a while. On the other hand, generic web (http) proxy servers are more robust and easier to cope with such changes.

Setting up package archive manually is complicated. There are several repository management tools available. A comprehensive list is available online. Here is a demo for manually creating a small public package archive compatible with the secure APT system (see ). Let's assume few things. Account name: "foo" Host name: "www.example.com" Required packages: apt-utils, gnupg, and other packages URL: "http://www.example.com/~foo/" ( → "/home/foo/public_html/index.html") Architecture of packages: "amd64" Create an APT archive key of Foo on your server system as the following. $ ssh foo@www.example.com $ gpg --gen-key ... $ gpg -K ... sec 1024D/3A3CB5A6 2008-08-14 uid Foo (ARCHIVE KEY) <foo@www.example.com> ssb 2048g/6856F4A7 2008-08-14 $ gpg --export -a 3A3CB5A6 >foo.public.key Publish the archive key file "foo.public.key" with the key ID "3A3CB5A6" for Foo Create an archive tree called "Origin: Foo" as the following. $ umask 022 $ mkdir -p ~/public_html/debian/pool/main $ mkdir -p ~/public_html/debian/dists/unstable/main/binary-amd64 $ mkdir -p ~/public_html/debian/dists/unstable/main/source $ cd ~/public_html/debian $ cat > dists/unstable/main/binary-amd64/Release << EOF Archive: unstable Version: 4.0 Component: main Origin: Foo Label: Foo Architecture: amd64 EOF $ cat > dists/unstable/main/source/Release << EOF Archive: unstable Version: 4.0 Component: main Origin: Foo Label: Foo Architecture: source EOF $ cat >aptftp.conf <<EOF APT::FTPArchive::Release { Origin "Foo"; Label "Foo"; Suite "unstable"; Codename "sid"; Architectures "amd64"; Components "main"; Description "Public archive for Foo"; }; EOF $ cat >aptgenerate.conf <<EOF Dir::ArchiveDir "."; Dir::CacheDir "."; TreeDefault::Directory "pool/"; TreeDefault::SrcDirectory "pool/"; Default::Packages::Extensions ".deb"; Default::Packages::Compress ". gzip bzip2"; Default::Sources::Compress "gzip bzip2"; Default::Contents::Compress "gzip bzip2"; BinDirectory "dists/unstable/main/binary-amd64" { Packages "dists/unstable/main/binary-amd64/Packages"; Contents "dists/unstable/Contents-amd64"; SrcPackages "dists/unstable/main/source/Sources"; }; Tree "dists/unstable" { Sections "main"; Architectures "amd64 source"; }; EOF You can automate repetitive updates of APT archive contents on your server system by configuring dupload. Place all package files into "~foo/public_html/debian/pool/main/" by executing "dupload -t foo changes_file" in client while having "~/.dupload.conf" containing the following. $cfg{'foo'} = { fqdn => "www.example.com", method => "scpb", incoming => "/home/foo/public_html/debian/pool/main", # The dinstall on ftp-master sends emails itself dinstall_runs => 1, }; $cfg{'foo'}{postupload}{'changes'} = " echo 'cd public_html/debian ; apt-ftparchive generate -c=aptftp.conf aptgenerate.conf; apt-ftparchive release -c=aptftp.conf dists/unstable >dists/unstable/Release ; rm -f dists/unstable/Release.gpg ; gpg -u 3A3CB5A6 -bao dists/unstable/Release.gpg dists/unstable/Release'| ssh foo@www.example.com 2>/dev/null ; echo 'Package archive created!'"; The postupload hook script initiated by dupload1 creates updated archive files for each upload. You can add this small public archive to the apt-line of your client system by the following. $ sudo bash # echo "deb http://www.example.com/~foo/debian/ unstable main" \ >> /etc/apt/sources.list # apt-key add foo.public.key If the archive is located on the local filesystem, you can use "deb file:///home/foo/debian/ …" instead.

You can make a local copy of the package and debconf selection states by the following. # dpkg --get-selections '*' > selection.dpkg # debconf-get-selections > selection.debconf Here, "*" makes "selection.dpkg" to include package entries for "purge" too. You can transfer these 2 files to another computer, and install there with the following. # dselect update # debconf-set-selections < myselection.debconf # dpkg --set-selections < myselection.dpkg # apt-get -u dselect-upgrade # or dselect install If you are thinking about managing many servers in a cluster with practically the same configuration, you should consider to use specialized package such as fai to manage the whole system.

alien1 enables the conversion of binary packages provided in Red Hat rpm, Stampede slp, Slackware tgz, and Solaris pkg file formats into a Debian deb package. If you want to use a package from another Linux distribution than the one you have installed on your system, you can use alien to convert it from your preferred package format and install it. alien also supports LSB packages. alien1 should not be used to replace essential system packages, such as sysvinit, libc6, libpam-modules, etc. Practically, alien1 should only be used for non-free binary-only packages which are LSB compliant or statically linked. For free softwares, you should use their source packages to make real Debian packages.

The "dpkg*.deb" package contents can be extracted without using dpkg1 on any Unix-like environment using standard ar1 and tar1. # ar x /path/to/dpkg_<version>_<arch>.deb # ls total 24 -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 1320 2007-05-07 00:11 control.tar.gz -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 12837 2007-05-07 00:11 data.tar.gz -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 4 2007-05-07 00:11 debian-binary # mkdir control # mkdir data # tar xvzf control.tar.gz -C control # tar xvzf data.tar.gz -C data The other "*.deb" package contents can be extracted by the dpkg-deb1 command obtained from the "dpkg*.deb" package as above; or using standard ar1 and newer GNU tar1 with the xz1 decompression support similarly as above. You can also browse package content using the mc command.

You can learn more on the package management from following documentations. Primary documentations on the package management: aptitude8, dpkg1, tasksel8, apt8, apt-get8, apt-config8, apt-key8, sources.list5, apt.conf5, and apt_preferences5; "/usr/share/doc/apt-doc/guide.html/index.html" and "/usr/share/doc/apt-doc/offline.html/index.html" from the apt-doc package; and "/usr/share/doc/aptitude/html/en/index.html" from the aptitude-doc-en package. Official and detailed documentations on the Debian archive: "Debian Policy Manual Chapter 2 - The Debian Archive", "Debian Developer's Reference, Chapter 4 - Resources for Debian Developers 4.6 The Debian archive", and "The Debian GNU/Linux FAQ, Chapter 6 - The Debian FTP archives". Tutorial for building of a Debian package for Debian users: "Debian New Maintainers' Guide" (deprecated). "Guide for Debian Maintainers".

It is wise for you as the system administrator to know roughly how the Debian system is started and configured. Although the exact details are in the source files of the packages installed and their documentations, it is a bit overwhelming for most of us. I did my best to provide a quick overview of the key points of the Debian system and their configuration for your reference, based on the current and previous knowledge of mine and others. Since the Debian system is a moving target, the situation over the system may have been changed. Before making any changes to the system, you should refer to the latest documentation for each package. bootup7 describes the system bootup process based on systemd . (Recent Debian) boot7 describes the system bootup process based on UNIX System V Release 4. (Older Debian)

The computer system undergoes several phases of boot strap processes from the power-on event until it offers the fully functional operating system (OS) to the user. For simplicity, I limit discussion to the typical PC platform with the default installation. The typical boot strap process is like a four-stage rocket. Each stage rocket hands over the system control to the next stage one. Of course, these can be configured differently. For example, if you compiled your own kernel, you may be skipping the step with the mini-Debian system. So please do not assume this is the case for your system until you check it yourself. For non-legacy PC platform such as the SUN or the Macintosh system, the BIOS on ROM and the partition on the disk may be quite different (). Please seek the platform specific documentations elsewhere for such a case.

The BIOS is the 1st stage of the boot process which is started by the power-on event. The BIOS residing on the read only memory (ROM) is executed from the particular memory address to which the program counter of CPU is initialized by the power-on event. This BIOS performs the basic initialization of the hardware (POST: power on self test) and hands the system control to the next step which you provide. The BIOS is usually provided with the hardware. The BIOS startup screen usually indicates what key(s) to press to enter the BIOS setup screen to configure the BIOS behavior. Popular keys used are F1, F2, F10, Esc, Ins, and Del. If your BIOS startup screen is hidden by a nice graphics screen, you may press some keys such as Esc to disable this. These keys are highly dependent on the hardware. The hardware location and the priority of the code started by the BIOS can be selected from the BIOS setup screen. Typically, the first few sectors of the first found selected device (hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM, …) are loaded to the memory and this initial code is executed. This initial code can be any one of the following. The boot loader code The kernel code of the stepping stone OS such as FreeDOS The kernel code of the target OS if it fits in this small space Typically, the system is booted from the specified partition of the primary hard disk partition. First 2 sectors of the hard disk on legacy PC contain the master boot record (MBR). The disk partition information including the boot selection is recorded at the end of this MBR. The first boot loader code executed from the BIOS occupies the rest of this MBR.

The boot loader is the 2nd stage of the boot process which is started by the BIOS. It loads the system kernel image and the initrd image to the memory and hands control over to them. This initrd image is the root filesystem image and its support depends on the bootloader used. The Debian system normally uses the Linux kernel as the default system kernel. The initrd image for the current 2.6/3.x Linux kernel is technically the initramfs (initial RAM filesystem) image. The basic initrd image is a compressed cpio archive of files in the root filesystem. The kernel can update microcode very early during boot before loading this basic initrd image. This is facilitated by the combined initrd image which is microcode binary blob in uncompressed cpio format followed by the basic initrd image. You can inspect the content of the initrd image file using lsinitramfs8 and unmkinitramfs8 from the initramfs-tools-core package. See more on https://wiki.debian.org/initramfs. The default install of the Debian system places first-stage GRUB boot loader code into the MBR for the PC platform. There are many boot loaders and configuration options available. package popcon size initrd bootloader description grub-legacy @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Supported GRUB Legacy This is smart enough to understand disk partitions and filesystems such as vfat, ext3, …. grub-pc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Supported GRUB 2 This is smart enough to understand disk partitions and filesystems such as vfat, ext4, …. (default) grub-rescue-pc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Supported GRUB 2 This is GRUB 2 bootable rescue images (CD and floppy) (PC/BIOS version) lilo @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Supported Lilo This relies on the sector locations of data on the hard disk. (Old) syslinux @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Supported Isolinux This understands the ISO9660 filesystem. This is used by the boot CD. syslinux @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Supported Syslinux This understands the MSDOS filesystem (FAT). This is used by the boot floppy. loadlin @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Supported Loadlin New system is started from the FreeDOS/MSDOS system. mbr @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Not supported MBR by Neil Turton This is free software which substitutes MSDOS MBR. This only understands disk partitions. Do not play with boot loaders without having bootable rescue media (USB memory stick, CD or floppy) created from images in the grub-rescue-pc package. It makes you boot your system even without functioning bootloader on the hard disk. For GRUB Legacy, the menu configuration file is located at "/boot/grub/menu.lst". For example, it has entries as the following. title Debian GNU/Linux root (hd0,2) kernel /vmlinuz root=/dev/hda3 ro initrd /initrd.img For GRUB 2, the menu configuration file is located at "/boot/grub/grub.cfg". It is automatically generated by "/usr/sbin/update-grub" using templates from "/etc/grub.d/*" and settings from "/etc/default/grub". For example, it has entries as the following. menuentry "Debian GNU/Linux" { set root=(hd0,3) linux /vmlinuz root=/dev/hda3 initrd /initrd.img } For these examples, these GRUB parameters mean the following. GRUB parameter meaning root use 3rd partition on the primary disk by setting it as "(hd0,2)" in GRUB legacy or as "(hd0,3)" in GRUB 2 kernel use kernel located at "/vmlinuz" with kernel parameter: "root=/dev/hda3 ro" initrd use initrd/initramfs image located at "/initrd.img" The value of the partition number used by GRUB legacy program is one less than normal one used by Linux kernel and utility tools. GRUB 2 program fixes this problem. UUID (see ) may be used to identify a block special device instead of its file name such as "/dev/hda3", e.g."root=UUID=81b289d5-4341-4003-9602-e254a17ac232 ro". If GRUB is used, the kernel boot parameter is set in /boot/grub/grub.cfg. On Debian system, you should not edit /boot/grub/grub.cfg directly. You should edit the GRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX_DEFAULT value in /etc/default/grub and run update-grub8 to update /boot/grub/grub.cfg. You can start a boot loader from another boot loader using techniques called chain loading. See "info grub" and grub-install8.

The mini-Debian system is the 3rd stage of the boot process which is started by the boot loader. It runs the system kernel with its root filesystem on the memory. This is an optional preparatory stage of the boot process. The term "the mini-Debian system" is coined by the author to describe this 3rd stage boot process for this document. This system is commonly referred as the initrd or initramfs system. Similar system on the memory is used by the Debian Installer. The "/init" program is executed as the first program in this root filesystem on the memory. It is a program which initializes the kernel in user space and hands control over to the next stage. This mini-Debian system offers flexibility to the boot process such as adding kernel modules before the main boot process or mounting the root filesystem as an encrypted one. The "/init" program is a shell script program if initramfs was created by initramfs-tools. You can interrupt this part of the boot process to gain root shell by providing "break=init" etc. to the kernel boot parameter. See the "/init" script for more break conditions. This shell environment is sophisticated enough to make a good inspection of your machine's hardware. Commands available in this mini-Debian system are stripped down ones and mainly provided by a GNU tool called busybox1. The "/init" program is a binary systemd program if initramfs was created by dracut. Commands available in this mini-Debian system are stripped down systemd1 environment. You need to use "-n" option for mount command when you are on the readonly root filesystem.

The normal Debian system is the 4th stage of the boot process which is started by the mini-Debian system. The system kernel for the mini-Debian system continues to run in this environment. The root filesystem is switched from the one on the memory to the one on the real hard disk filesystem. The init program is executed as the first program with PID=1 to perform the main boot process of starting many programs. The default file path for the init program is "/sbin/init" but it can be changed by the kernel boot parameter as "init=/path/to/init_program". The default init program has been changing: Debian before squeeze uses the simple SysV-style init. Debian wheezy improves the SysV-style init by ordering the boot sequence with LSB header and starting boot scripts in parallel. Debian jessie switches its default init to the systemd for the event-driven and parallel initialization. The actual init command on your system can be verified by the "ps --pid 1 -f" command. "/sbin/init" is symlinked to "/lib/systemd/systemd" after Debian jessie. package popcon size description systemd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ event-based init8 daemon for concurrency (alternative to sysvinit) systemd-sysv @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ the manual pages and links needed for systemd to replace sysvinit systemd-cron @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ systemd units to provide cron daemon and anacron functionality init-system-helpers @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ helper tools for switching between sysvinit and systemd initscripts @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ scripts for initializing and shutting down the system sysvinit-core @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ System-V-like init8 utilities sysv-rc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ System-V-like runlevel change mechanism sysvinit-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ System-V-like utilities (startpar8, bootlogd8, …) lsb-base @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Linux Standard Base 3.2 init script functionality insserv @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ tool to organize boot sequence using LSB init.d script dependencies uswsusp @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ tools to use userspace software suspend provided by Linux kexec-tools @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ kexec tool for kexec8 reboots (warm reboot) systemd-bootchart @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ boot process performance analyser bootchart2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ boot process performance analyser pybootchartgui @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ boot process performance analyser (visualisation) mingetty @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ console-only getty8 mgetty @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ smart modem getty8 replacement See Debian wiki: BootProcessSpeedup for the latest tips to speed up the boot process.

This section describes how system is started by the systemd1 program with PID=1 (i.e., init process). The systemd init process spawns processes in parallel based on the unit configuration files (see systemd.unit5) which are written in declarative style instead of SysV-like procedural style. These are loaded from a set of paths (see systemd-system.conf5) as follows: "/lib/systemd/system": OS default configuration files "/etc/systemd/system": system administrator configuration files which override the OS default configuration files "/run/systemd/system": run-time generated configuration files which override the installed configuration files Their inter-dependencies are specified by the directives "Wants=", "Requires=", "Before=", "After=", … (see "MAPPING OF UNIT PROPERTIES TO THEIR INVERSES" in systemd.unit5). The resource controls are also defined (see systemd.resource-control5). The suffix of the unit configuration file encodes their types as: *.service describes the process controlled and supervised by systemd. See systemd.service5. *.device describes the device exposed in the sysfs5 as udev7 device tree. See systemd.device5. *.mount describes the file system mount point controlled and supervised by systemd. See systemd.mount5. *.automount describes the file system auto mount point controlled and supervised by systemd. See systemd.automount5. *.swap describes the swap device or file controlled and supervised by systemd. See systemd.swap5. *.path describes the path monitored by systemd for path-based activation. See systemd.path5. *.socket describes the socket controlled and supervised by systemd for socket-based activation. See systemd.socket5. *.timer describes the timer controlled and supervised by systemd for timer-based activation. See systemd.timer5. *.slice manages resources with the cgroups7. See systemd.slice5. *.scope is created programmatically using the bus interfaces of systemd to manages a set of system processes. See systemd.scope5. *.target groups other unit configuration files to create the synchronization point during start-up. See systemd.target5. Upon system start up (i.e., init), the systemd process tries to start the "/lib/systemd/system/default.target (normally symlinked to "graphical.target"). First, some special target units (see systemd.special7) such as "local-fs.target", "swap.target" and "cryptsetup.target" are pulled in to mount the filesystems. Then, other target units are also pulled in by the target unit dependencies. For details, read bootup7. systemd offers backward compatibility features. SysV-style boot scripts in "/etc/init.d/rc[0123456S].d/[KS]<name>" are still parsed and telinit8 is translated into systemd unit activation requests. Emulated runlevel 2 to 4 are all symlinked to the same "multi-user.target".

The kernel maintains the system hostname. The system unit started by systemd-hostnamed.service sets the system hostname at boot time to the name stored in "/etc/hostname". This file should contain only the system hostname, not a fully qualified domain name. To print out the current hostname run hostname1 without an argument.

The mount options of normal disk and network filesystems are set in "/etc/fstab". See fstab5 and . The configuration of the encrypted filesystem is set in "/etc/crypttab". See crypttab5 The configuration of software RAID with mdadm8 is set in "/etc/mdadm/mdadm.conf". See mdadm.conf5. After mounting all the filesystems, temporary files in "/tmp", "/var/lock", and "/var/run" are cleaned for each boot up.

Network interfaces are typically initialized in "networking.service" for the lo interface and "NetworkManager.service" for other interfaces on modern Debian desktop system under systemd. See for how to configure them.

The kernel error message displayed to the console can be configured by setting its threshold level. # dmesg -n3 error level value error level name meaning 0 KERN_EMERG system is unusable 1 KERN_ALERT action must be taken immediately 2 KERN_CRIT critical conditions 3 KERN_ERR error conditions 4 KERN_WARNING warning conditions 5 KERN_NOTICE normal but significant condition 6 KERN_INFO informational 7 KERN_DEBUG debug-level messages

Under systemd, both kernel and system messages are logged by the journal service systemd-journald.service (a.k.a journald) either into a persistent binary data below "/var/log/journal" or into a volatile binary data below "/run/log/journal/". These binary log data are accessed by the journalctl1 command. Under systemd, the system logging utility rsyslogd8 changes its behavior to read the volatile binary log data (instead of pre-systemd default "/dev/log") and to create traditional permanent ASCII system log data. The system message can be customized by "/etc/default/rsyslog" and "/etc/rsyslog.conf" for both the log file and on-screen display. See rsyslogd8 and rsyslog.conf5. See also .

The systemd offers not only init system but also generic system management functionalities such as journal logging, login management, time management, network management. etc.. The systemd1 is managed by several commands: the systemctl1 command controls the systemd system and service manager (CLI), the systemsdm1 command controls the systemd system and service manager (GUI), the journalctl1 command queries the systemd journal, the loginctl1 command controls the systemd login manager, and the systemd-analyze1 analyzes system boot-up performance. Here are a list of typical systemd management command snippets. For the exact meanings, please read the pertinent manpages. Operation Type Command snippets GUI for service manager GUI "systemadm" (systemd-ui package) List all target unit configuration Unit "systemctl list-units --type=target" List all service unit configuration Unit "systemctl list-units --type=service" List all unit configuration types Unit "systemctl list-units --type=help" List all socket units in memory Unit "systemctl list-sockets" List all timer units in memory Unit "systemctl list-timers" Start "$unit" Unit "systemctl start $unit" Stop "$unit" Unit "systemctl stop $unit" Reload service-specific configuration Unit "systemctl reload $unit" Stop and start all "$unit" Unit "systemctl restart $unit" Start "$unit" and stop all others Unit "systemctl isolate $unit" Switch to "graphical" (GUI system) Unit "systemctl isolate graphical" Switch to "multi-user" (CLI system) Unit "systemctl isolate multi-user" Switch to "rescue" (single user CLI system) Unit "systemctl isolate rescue" Send kill signal to "$unit" Unit "systemctl kill $unit" Check if "$unit" service is active Unit "systemctl is-active $unit" Check if "$unit" service is failed Unit "systemctl is-failed $unit" Check status of "$unit|$PID|device" Unit "systemctl status $unit|$PID|$device" Show properties of "$unit|$job" Unit "systemctl show $unit|$job" Reset failed "$unit" Unit "systemctl reset-failed $unit" List dependency of all unit services Unit "systemctl list-dependencies --all" List unit files installed on the system Unit file "systemctl list-unit-files" Enable "$unit" (add symlink) Unit file "systemctl enable $unit" Disable "$unit" (remove symlink) Unit file "systemctl disable $unit" Unmask "$unit" (remove symlink to "/dev/null") Unit file "systemctl unmask $unit" Mask "$unit" (add symlink to "/dev/null") Unit file "systemctl mask $unit" Get default-target setting Unit file "systemctl get-default" Set default-target to "graphical" (GUI system) Unit file "systemctl set-default graphical" Set default-target to "multi-user" (CLI system) Unit file "systemctl set-default multi-user" Show job environment Environment "systemctl show-environment" Set job environment "variable" to "value" Environment "systemctl set-environment variable=value" Unset job environment "variable" Environment "systemctl unset-environment variable" Reload all unit files and daemons Lifecycle "systemctl daemon-reload" Shut down the system System "systemctl poweroff" Shut down and reboot the system System "systemctl reboot" Suspend the system System "systemctl suspend" Hibernate the system System "systemctl hibernate" View job log of "$unit" Journal "journalctl -u $unit" View job log of "$unit" ("tail -f" style) Journal "journalctl -u $unit -f" Show time spent for each initialization steps Analyze "systemd-analyze time" List of all units by the time to initialize Analyze "systemd-analyze blame" Load and detect errors in "$unit" file Analyze "systemd-analyze verify $unit" Track boot process by the cgroups7 Cgroup "systemd-cgls" Track boot process by the cgroups7 Cgroup "ps xawf -eo pid,user,cgroup,args" Track boot process by the cgroups7 Cgroup Read sysfs under "/sys/fs/cgroup/systemd/" Here, "$unit" in the above examples may be a single unit name (suffix such as .service and .target are optional) or, in many cases, multiple unit specifications (shell-style globs "*", "?", "[]" using fnmatch3 which will be matched against the primary names of all units currently in memory). System state changing commands in the above examples are typically preceded by the "sudo" to attain the required administrative privilege. The output of the "systemctl status $unit|$PID|$device" uses color of the dot ("●") to summarize the unit state at a glance. White "●" indicates an "inactive" or "deactivating" state. Red "●" indicates a "failed" or "error" state. Green "●" indicates an "active", "reloading" or "activating" state.

With default installation, many network services (see ) are started as daemon processes after network.target at boot time by systemd. The "sshd" is no exception. Let's change this to on-demand start of "sshd" as a customization example. First, disable system installed service unit. $ sudo systemctl stop sshd.service $ sudo systemctl mask sshd.service The on-demand socket activation system of the classic Unix services was through the indetd superserver. Under systemd, the equivalent can be enabled by adding *.socket and *.service unit configuration files. sshd.socket for specifying a socket to listen on [Unit] Description=SSH Socket for Per-Connection Servers [Socket] ListenStream=22 Accept=yes [Install] WantedBy=sockets.target sshd@.service as the matching service file of sshd.socket [Unit] Description=SSH Per-Connection Server [Service] ExecStart=-/usr/sbin/sshd -i StandardInput=socket Then reload. $ sudo systemctl daemon-reload

For Linux kernel 2.6 and newer, the udev system provides mechanism for the automatic hardware discovery and initialization (see udev7). Upon discovery of each device by the kernel, the udev system starts a user process which uses information from the sysfs filesystem (see ), loads required kernel modules supporting it using the modprobe8 program (see ), and creates corresponding device nodes. If "/lib/modules/<kernel-version>/modules.dep" was not generated properly by depmod8 for some reason, modules may not be loaded as expected by the udev system. Execute "depmod -a" to fix it. The name of device nodes can be configured by udev rule files in "/etc/udev/rules.d/". Current default rules tend to create dynamically generated names resulting non-static device names except for cd and network devices. By adding your custom rules similar to what cd and network devices do, you can generate static device names for other devices such as USB memory sticks, too. See "Writing udev rules" or "/usr/share/doc/udev/writing_udev_rules/index.html". Since the udev system is somewhat a moving target, I leave details to other documentations and describe the minimum information here. For mounting rules in "/etc/fstab", device nodes do not need to be static ones. You can use UUID to mount devices instead of device names such as "/dev/sda". See .

The modprobe8 program enables us to configure running Linux kernel from user process by adding and removing kernel modules. The udev system (see ) automates its invocation to help the kernel module initialization. There are non-hardware modules and special hardware driver modules as the following which need to be pre-loaded by listing them in the "/etc/modules" file (see modules5). TUN/TAP modules providing virtual Point-to-Point network device (TUN) and virtual Ethernet network device (TAP), netfilter modules providing netfilter firewall capabilities (iptables8, ), and watchdog timer driver modules. The configuration files for the modprobe8 program are located under the "/etc/modprobes.d/" directory as explained in modprobe.conf5. (If you want to avoid some kernel modules to be auto-loaded, consider to blacklist them in the "/etc/modprobes.d/blacklist" file.) The "/lib/modules/<version>/modules.dep" file generated by the depmod8 program describes module dependencies used by the modprobe8 program. If you experience module loading issues with boot time module loading or with modprobe8, "depmod -a" may resolve these issues by reconstructing "modules.dep". The modinfo8 program shows information about a Linux kernel module. The lsmod8 program nicely formats the contents of the "/proc/modules", showing what kernel modules are currently loaded. You can identify exact hardware on your system. See . You may configure hardware at boot time to activate expected hardware features. See . You can probably add support for your special device by recompiling the kernel. See .

When a person (or a program) requests access to the system, authentication confirms the identity to be a trusted one. Configuration errors of PAM may lock you out of your own system. You must have a rescue CD handy or setup an alternative boot partition. To recover, boot the system with them and correct things from there. This chapter is getting outdated since this is based on Debian 7.0 (Wheezy) released in 2013.

Normal Unix authentication is provided by the pam_unix8 module under the PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules). Its 3 important configuration files, with ":" separated entries, are the following. file permission user group description /etc/passwd -rw-r--r-- root root (sanitized) user account information /etc/shadow -rw-r----- root shadow secure user account information /etc/group -rw-r--r-- root root group information "/etc/passwd" contains the following. ... user1:x:1000:1000:User1 Name,,,:/home/user1:/bin/bash user2:x:1001:1001:User2 Name,,,:/home/user2:/bin/bash ... As explained in passwd5, each ":" separated entry of this file means the following. Login name Password specification entry Numerical user ID Numerical group ID User name or comment field User home directory Optional user command interpreter The second entry of "/etc/passwd" was used for the encrypted password entry. After the introduction of "/etc/shadow", this entry is used for the password specification entry. content meaning (empty) passwordless account x the encrypted password is in "/etc/shadow" * no login for this account ! no login for this account "/etc/shadow" contains the following. ... user1:$1$Xop0FYH9$IfxyQwBe9b8tiyIkt2P4F/:13262:0:99999:7::: user2:$1$vXGZLVbS$ElyErNf/agUDsm1DehJMS/:13261:0:99999:7::: ... As explained in shadow5, each ":" separated entry of this file means the following. Login name Encrypted password (The initial "$1$" indicates use of the MD5 encryption. The "*" indicates no login.) Date of the last password change, expressed as the number of days since Jan 1, 1970 Number of days the user will have to wait before she will be allowed to change her password again Number of days after which the user will have to change her password Number of days before a password is going to expire during which the user should be warned Number of days after a password has expired during which the password should still be accepted Date of expiration of the account, expressed as the number of days since Jan 1, 1970 … "/etc/group" contains the following. group1:x:20:user1,user2 As explained in group5, each ":" separated entry of this file means the following. Group name Encrypted password (not really used) Numerical group ID "," separated list of user names "/etc/gshadow" provides the similar function as "/etc/shadow" for "/etc/group" but is not really used. The actual group membership of a user may be dynamically added if "auth optional pam_group.so" line is added to "/etc/pam.d/common-auth" and set it in "/etc/security/group.conf". See pam_group8. The base-passwd package contains an authoritative list of the user and the group: "/usr/share/doc/base-passwd/users-and-groups.html".

Here are few notable commands to manage account information. command function getent passwd <user_name> browse account information of "<user_name>" getent shadow <user_name> browse shadowed account information of "<user_name>" getent group <group_name> browse group information of "<group_name>" passwd manage password for the account passwd -e set one-time password for the account activation chage manage password aging information You may need to have the root privilege for some functions to work. See crypt3 for the password and data encryption. On the system set up with PAM and NSS as the Debian salsa machine, the content of local "/etc/passwd", "/etc/group" and "/etc/shadow" may not be actively used by the system. Above commands are valid even under such environment.

When creating an account during your system installation or with the passwd1 command, you should choose a good password which consists of at least 6 to 8 characters including one or more characters from each of the following sets according to passwd1. Lower case alphabetics Digits 0 through 9 Punctuation marks Do not choose guessable words for the password. Account name, social security number, phone number, address, birthday, name of your family members or pets, dictionary words, simple sequence of characters such as "12345" or "qwerty", … are all bad choice for the password.

There are independent tools to generate encrypted passwords with salt. package popcon size command function whois @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ mkpasswd over-featured front end to the crypt3 library openssl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ openssl passwd compute password hashes (OpenSSL). passwd1ssl

Modern Unix-like systems such as the Debian system provide PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules) and NSS (Name Service Switch) mechanism to the local system administrator to configure his system. The role of these can be summarizes as the following. PAM offers a flexible authentication mechanism used by the application software thus involves password data exchange. NSS offers a flexible name service mechanism which is frequently used by the C standard library to obtain the user and group name for programs such as ls1 and id1. These PAM and NSS systems need to be configured consistently. The notable packages of PAM and NSS systems are the following. package popcon size description libpam-modules @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Pluggable Authentication Modules (basic service) libpam-ldap @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Pluggable Authentication Module allowing LDAP interfaces libpam-cracklib @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Pluggable Authentication Module to enable cracklib support libpam-systemd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Pluggable Authentication Module to register user sessions for logind libpam-doc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Pluggable Authentication Modules (documentation in html and text) libc6 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNU C Library: Shared libraries which also provides "Name Service Switch" service glibc-doc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNU C Library: Manpages glibc-doc-reference @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNU C Library: Reference manual in info, pdf and html format (non-free) libnss-mdns @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ NSS module for Multicast DNS name resolution libnss-ldap @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ NSS module for using LDAP as a naming service libnss-ldapd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ NSS module for using LDAP as a naming service (new fork of libnss-ldap) "The Linux-PAM System Administrators' Guide" in libpam-doc is essential for learning PAM configuration. "System Databases and Name Service Switch" section in glibc-doc-reference is essential for learning NSS configuration. You can see more extensive and current list by "aptitude search 'libpam-|libnss-'" command. The acronym NSS may also mean "Network Security Service" which is different from "Name Service Switch". PAM is the most basic way to initialize environment variables for each program with the system wide default value. Under systemd, libpam-systemd package is installed to manage user logins by registering user sessions in the systemd control group hierarchy for logind. See systemd-logind8, logind.conf5, and pam_systemd8.

Here are a few notable configuration files accessed by PAM and NSS. configuration file function /etc/pam.d/<program_name> set up PAM configuration for the "<program_name>" program; see pam7 and pam.d5 /etc/nsswitch.conf set up NSS configuration with the entry for each service. See nsswitch.conf5 /etc/nologin limit the user login by the pam_nologin8 module /etc/securetty limit the tty for the root access by the pam_securetty8 module /etc/security/access.conf set access limit by the pam_access8 module /etc/security/group.conf set group based restraint by the pam_group8 module /etc/security/pam_env.conf set environment variables by the pam_env8 module /etc/environment set additional environment variables by the pam_env8 module with the "readenv=1" argument /etc/default/locale set locale by pam_env8 module with the "readenv=1 envfile=/etc/default/locale" argument (Debian) /etc/security/limits.conf set resource restraint (ulimit, core, …) by the pam_linits8 module /etc/security/time.conf set time restraint by the pam_time8 module /etc/systemd/logind.conf set systemd login manager configuration (see logind.conf5 and systemd-logind.service8) The limitation of the password selection is implemented by the PAM modules, pam_unix8 and pam_cracklib8. They can be configured by their arguments. PAM modules use suffix ".so" for their filenames.

The modern centralized system management can be deployed using the centralized Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) server to administer many Unix-like and non-Unix-like systems on the network. The open source implementation of the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol is OpenLDAP Software. The LDAP server provides the account information through the use of PAM and NSS with libpam-ldap and libnss-ldap packages for the Debian system. Several actions are required to enable this (I have not used this setup and the following is purely secondary information. Please read this in this context.). You set up a centralized LDAP server by running a program such as the stand-alone LDAP daemon, slapd8. You change the PAM configuration files in the "/etc/pam.d/" directory to use "pam_ldap.so" instead of the default "pam_unix.so". Debian uses "/etc/pam_ldap.conf" as the configuration file for libpam-ldap and "/etc/pam_ldap.secret" as the file to store the password of the root. You change the NSS configuration in the "/etc/nsswitch.conf" file to use "ldap" instead of the default ("compat" or "file"). Debian uses "/etc/libnss-ldap.conf" as the configuration file for libnss-ldap. You must make libpam-ldap to use SSL (or TLS) connection for the security of password. You may make libnss-ldap to use SSL (or TLS) connection to ensure integrity of data at the cost of the LDAP network overhead. You should run nscd8 locally to cache any LDAP search results in order to reduce the LDAP network traffic. See documentations in pam_ldap.conf5 and "/usr/share/doc/libpam-doc/html/" offered by the libpam-doc package and "info libc 'Name Service Switch'" offered by the glibc-doc package. Similarly, you can set up alternative centralized systems with other methods. Integration of user and group with the Windows system. Access Windows domain services by the winbind and libpam_winbind packages. See winbindd8 and Integrating MS Windows Networks with Samba. Integration of user and group with the legacy Unix-like system. Access NIS (originally called YP) or NIS+ by the nis package. See The Linux NIS(YP)/NYS/NIS+ HOWTO.

This is the famous phrase at the bottom of the old "info su" page by Richard M. Stallman. Not to worry: the current su command in Debian uses PAM, so that one can restrict the ability to use su to the root group by enabling the line with "pam_wheel.so" in "/etc/pam.d/su".

Installing the libpam-cracklib package enables you to force stricter password rule, for example, by having active lines in "/etc/pam.d/common-password" as the following. For squeeze: password required pam_cracklib.so retry=3 minlen=9 difok=3 password [success=1 default=ignore] pam_unix.so use_authtok nullok md5 password requisite pam_deny.so password required pam_permit.so

See for restricting the kernel secure attention key (SAK) feature.

sudo8 is a program designed to allow a sysadmin to give limited root privileges to users and log root activity. sudo requires only an ordinary user's password. Install sudo package and activate it by setting options in "/etc/sudoers". See configuration example at "/usr/share/doc/sudo/examples/sudoers" and . My usage of sudo for the single user system (see ) is aimed to protect myself from my own stupidity. Personally, I consider using sudo a better alternative than using the system from the root account all the time. For example, the following changes the owner of "<some_file>" to "<my_name>". $ sudo chown <my_name> <some_file> Of course if you know the root password (as self-installed Debian users do), any command can be run under root from any user's account using "su -c".

PolicyKit is an operating system component for controlling system-wide privileges in Unix-like operating systems. Newer GUI applications are not designed to run as privileged processes. They talk to privileged processes via PolicyKit to perform administrative operations. PolicyKit limits such operations to user accounts belonging to the sudo group on the Debian system. See polkit8.

Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) is a framework to tighten privilege model tighter than the ordinary Unix-like security model with the mandatory access control (MAC) policies. The root power may be restricted under some conditions.

For system security, it is a good idea to disable as much server programs as possible. This becomes critical for network servers. Having unused servers, activated either directly as daemon or via super-server program, are considered security risks. Many programs, such as sshd8, use PAM based access control. There are many ways to restrict access to some server services. configuration files: "/etc/default/<program_name>" service unit configuration for daemon PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules) "/etc/inetd.conf" for super-server "/etc/hosts.deny" and "/etc/hosts.allow" for TCP wrapper, tcpd8 "/etc/rpc.conf" for Sun RPC "/etc/at.allow" and "/etc/at.deny" for atd8 "/etc/cron.allow" and "/etc/cron.deny" for crontab1 Network firewall of netfilter infrastructure See , , and . Sun RPC services need to be active for NFS and other RPC based programs. If you have problems with remote access in a recent Debian system, comment out offending configuration such as "ALL: PARANOID" in "/etc/hosts.deny" if it exists. (But you must be careful on security risks involved with this kind of action.)

The information here may not be sufficient for your security needs but it should be a good start.

Many popular transportation layer services communicate messages including password authentication in the plain text. It is very bad idea to transmit password in the plain text over the wild Internet where it can be intercepted. You can run these services over "Transport Layer Security" (TLS) or its predecessor, "Secure Sockets Layer" (SSL) to secure entire communication including password by the encryption. insecure service name port secure service name port www (http) 80 https 443 smtp (mail) 25 ssmtp (smtps) 465 ftp-data 20 ftps-data 989 ftp 21 ftps 990 telnet 23 telnets 992 imap2 143 imaps 993 pop3 110 pop3s 995 ldap 389 ldaps 636 The encryption costs CPU time. As a CPU friendly alternative, you can keep communication in plain text while securing just the password with the secure authentication protocol such as "Authenticated Post Office Protocol" (APOP) for POP and "Challenge-Response Authentication Mechanism MD5" (CRAM-MD5) for SMTP and IMAP. (For sending mail messages over the Internet to your mail server from your mail client, it is recently popular to use new message submission port 587 instead of traditional SMTP port 25 to avoid port 25 blocking by the network provider while authenticating yourself with CRAM-MD5.)

The Secure Shell (SSH) program provides secure encrypted communications between two untrusted hosts over an insecure network with the secure authentication. It consists of the OpenSSH client, ssh1, and the OpenSSH daemon, sshd8. This SSH can be used to tunnel an insecure protocol communication such as POP and X securely over the Internet with the port forwarding feature. The client tries to authenticate itself using host-based authentication, public key authentication, challenge-response authentication, or password authentication. The use of public key authentication enables the remote password-less login. See .

Even when you run secure services such as Secure Shell (SSH) and Point-to-point tunneling protocol (PPTP) servers, there are still chances for the break-ins using brute force password guessing attack etc. from the Internet. Use of the firewall policy (see ) together with the following secure tools may improve the security situation. package popcon size description knockd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ small port-knock daemon knockd1 and client konck1 fail2ban @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ban IPs that cause multiple authentication errors libpam-shield @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ lock out remote attackers trying password guessing

To prevent people to access your machine with root privilege, you need to make following actions. Prevent physical access to the hard disk Lock BIOS and prevent booting from the removable media Set password for GRUB interactive session Lock GRUB menu from editing With physical access to hard disk, resetting the password is relatively easy with following steps. Move the hard disk to a PC with CD bootable BIOS. Boot system with a rescue media (Debian boot disk, Knoppix CD, GRUB CD, …). Mount root partition with read/write access. Edit "/etc/passwd" in the root partition and make the second entry for the root account empty. If you have edit access to the GRUB menu entry (see ) for grub-rescue-pc at boot time, it is even easier with following steps. Boot system with the kernel parameter changed to something like "root=/dev/hda6 rw init=/bin/sh". Edit "/etc/passwd" and make the second entry for the root account empty. Reboot system. The root shell of the system is now accessible without password. Once one has root shell access, he can access everything on the system and reset any passwords on the system. Further more, he may compromise password for all user accounts using brute force password cracking tools such as john and crack packages (see ). This cracked password may lead to compromise other systems. The only reasonable software solution to avoid all these concerns is to use software encrypted root partition (or "/etc" partition) using dm-crypt and initramfs (see ). You always need password to boot the system, though.

For general guide to the GNU/Linux networking, read the Linux Network Administrators Guide. For modern Debian specific guide to the networking, read The Debian Administrator's Handbook — Configuring the Network. Instead of using the traditional interface naming scheme ("eth0", "eth1", "wlan0", …), the newer systemd uses "Predictable Network Interface Names" such as "enp0s25". This chapter is getting outdated since this is based on Debian 7.0 (Wheezy) released in 2013. Although this document still uses old ifconfig8 with IPv4 for its network configuration examples, Debian is moving to ip8 with IPv4+IPv6 in the wheezy release. Patches to update this document are welcomed. Under systemd, networkd may be used to manage networks. See systemd-networkd8.

Let's review the basic network infrastructure on the modern Debian system. packages popcon size type description ifupdown @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ config::ifupdown standardized tool to bring up and down the network (Debian specific) ifplugd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , manage the wired network automatically ifupdown-extra @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , network testing script to enhance "ifupdown" package ifmetric @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , set routing metrics for a network interface guessnet @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , mapping script to enhance "ifupdown" package via "/etc/network/interfaces" file ifscheme @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , mapping scripts to enhance "ifupdown" package network-manager @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ config::NM NetworkManager (daemon): manage the network automatically network-manager-gnome @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , NetworkManager (GNOME frontend) wicd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ config::wicd wired and wireless network manager (metapackage) wicd-cli @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , wired and wireless network manager (command-line client) wicd-curses @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , wired and wireless network manager (Curses client) wicd-daemon @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , wired and wireless network manager (daemon) wicd-gtk @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , wired and wireless network manager (GTK+ client) iptables @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ config::Netfilter administration tools for packet filtering and NAT (Netfilter) iproute2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ config::iproute2 iproute2, IPv6 and other advanced network configuration: ip8, tc8, etc ifrename @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , rename network interfaces based on various static criteria: ifrename8 ethtool @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , display or change Ethernet device settings iputils-ping @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ test::iproute2 test network reachability of a remote host by hostname or IP address (iproute2) iputils-arping @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , test network reachability of a remote host specified by the ARP address iputils-tracepath @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , trace the network path to a remote host net-tools @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ config::net-tools NET-3 networking toolkit (net-tools, IPv4 network configuration): ifconfig8 etc. inetutils-ping @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ test::net-tools test network reachability of a remote host by hostname or IP address (legacy, GNU) arping @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , test network reachability of a remote host specified by the ARP address (legacy) traceroute @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , trace the network path to a remote host (legacy, console) isc-dhcp-client @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ config::low-level DHCP client wpasupplicant @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , client support for WPA and WPA2 (IEEE 802.11i) wpagui @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , Qt GUI client for wpa_supplicant wireless-tools @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , tools for manipulating Linux Wireless Extensions ppp @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , PPP/PPPoE connection with chat pppoeconf @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ config::helper configuration helper for PPPoE connection pppconfig @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , configuration helper for PPP connection with chat wvdial @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , configuration helper for PPP connection with wvdial and ppp mtr-tiny @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ test::low-level trace the network path to a remote host (curses) mtr @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , trace the network path to a remote host (curses and GTK+) gnome-nettool @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , tools for common network information operations (GNOME) nmap @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , network mapper / port scanner (Nmap, console) zenmap @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , network mapper / port scanner (GTK+) tcpdump @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , network traffic analyzer (Tcpdump, console) wireshark @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , network traffic analyzer (Wireshark, GTK+) tshark @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , network traffic analyzer (console) tcptrace @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , produce a summarization of the connections from tcpdump output snort @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , flexible network intrusion detection system (Snort) ntopng @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , display network usage in web browser dnsutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , network clients provided with BIND: nslookup8, nsupdate8, dig8 dlint @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , check DNS zone information using nameserver lookups dnstracer @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , trace a chain of DNS servers to the source

The hostname resolution is currently supported by the NSS (Name Service Switch) mechanism too. The flow of this resolution is the following. The "/etc/nsswitch.conf" file with stanza like "hosts: files dns" dictates the hostname resolution order. (This replaces the old functionality of the "order" stanza in "/etc/host.conf".) The files method is invoked first. If the hostname is found in the "/etc/hosts" file, it returns all valid addresses for it and exits. (The "/etc/host.conf" file contains "multi on".) The dns method is invoked. If the hostname is found by the query to the Internet Domain Name System (DNS) identified by the "/etc/resolv.conf" file, it returns all valid addresses for it and exits. For example, "/etc/hosts" looks like the following. 127.0.0.1 localhost 127.0.1.1 <host_name> # The following lines are desirable for IPv6 capable hosts ::1 ip6-localhost ip6-loopback fe00::0 ip6-localnet ff00::0 ip6-mcastprefix ff02::1 ip6-allnodes ff02::2 ip6-allrouters ff02::3 ip6-allhosts Each line starts with a IP address and it is followed by the associated hostname. The IP address 127.0.1.1 in the second line of this example may not be found on some other Unix-like systems. The Debian Installer creates this entry for a system without a permanent IP address as a workaround for some software (e.g., GNOME) as documented in the bug #719621. The <host_name> matches the hostname defined in the "/etc/hostname". For a system with a permanent IP address, that permanent IP address should be used here instead of 127.0.1.1. For a system with a permanent IP address and a fully qualified domain name (FQDN) provided by the Domain Name System (DNS), that canonical <host_name>.<domain_name> should be used instead of just <host_name>. The "/etc/resolv.conf" is a static file if the resolvconf package is not installed. If installed, it is a symbolic link. Either way, it contains information that initialize the resolver routines. If the DNS is found at IP="192.168.11.1", it contains the following. nameserver 192.168.11.1 The resolvconf package makes this "/etc/resolv.conf" into a symbolic link and manages its contents by the hook scripts automatically. For the PC workstation on the typical adhoc LAN environment, the hostname can be resolved via Multicast DNS (mDNS, Zeroconf) in addition to the basic files and dns methods. Avahi provides a framework for Multicast DNS Service Discovery on Debian. It is equivalent of Apple Bonjour / Apple Rendezvous. The libnss-mdns plugin package provides host name resolution via mDNS for the GNU Name Service Switch (NSS) functionality of the GNU C Library (glibc). The "/etc/nsswitch.conf" file should have stanza like "hosts: files mdns4_minimal [NOTFOUND=return] dns mdns4". Host names ending with the ".local" pseudo-top-level domain (TLD) are resolved. The mDNS IPv4 link-local multicast address "224.0.0.251" or its IPv6 equivalent "FF02::FB" are used to make DNS query for a name ending with ".local". The hostname resolution via deprecated NETBios over TCP/IP used by the older Windows system can be provided by installing the winbind package. The "/etc/nsswitch.conf" file should have stanza like "hosts: files mdns4_minimal [NOTFOUND=return] dns mdns4 wins" to enable this functionality. (Modern Windows system usually use the dns method for the hostname resolution.) The expansion of generic Top-Level Domains (gTLD) in the Domain Name System is underway. Watch out for the name collision when chosing a domain name used only within LAN.

The network interface name, e.g. eth0, is assigned to each hardware in the Linux kernel through the user space configuration mechanism, udev (see ), as it is found. The network interface name is referred as physical interface in ifup8 and interfaces5. In order to ensure each network interface to be named persistently for each reboot using MAC address etc., there is a rules file "/etc/udev/rules.d/70-persistent-net.rules". This file is automatically generated by the "/lib/udev/write_net_rules" program, probably run by the "persistent-net-generator.rules" rules file. You can modify it to change naming rule. When editing the "/etc/udev/rules.d/70-persistent-net.rules" rules file, you must keep each rule on a single line and the MAC address in lowercase. For example, if you find "FireWire device" and "PCI device" in this file, you probably want to name "PCI device" as eth0 and configure it as the primary network interface.

Let us be reminded of the IPv4 32 bit address ranges in each class reserved for use on the local area networks (LANs) by rfc1918. These addresses are guaranteed not to conflict with any addresses on the Internet proper. Class network addresses net mask net mask /bits # of subnets A 10.x.x.x 255.0.0.0 /8 1 B 172.16.x.x — 172.31.x.x 255.255.0.0 /16 16 C 192.168.0.x — 192.168.255.x 255.255.255.0 /24 256 If one of these addresses is assigned to a host, then that host must not access the Internet directly but must access it through a gateway that acts as a proxy for individual services or else does Network Address Translation (NAT). The broadband router usually performs NAT for the consumer LAN environment.

Although most hardware devices are supported by the Debian system, there are some network devices which require DFSG non-free firmware to support them. Please see .

Network interfaces are typically initialized in "networking.service" for the lo interface and "NetworkManager.service" for other interfaces on modern Debian desktop system under systemd. Debian squeeze and newer can manage the network connection via management daemon software such as NetworkManager (NM) (network-manager and associated packages) or Wicd (wicd and associated packages). They come with their own GUI and command-line programs as their user interfaces. They come with their own daemon as their backend system. They allow easy connection of your system to the Internet. They allow easy management of wired and wireless network configuration. They allow us to configure network independent of the legacy ifupdown package. Do not use these automatic network configuration tools for servers. These are aimed primarily for mobile desktop users on laptops. These modern network configuration tools need to be configured properly to avoid conflicting with the legacy ifupdown package and its configuration file "/etc/network/interfaces". Some features of these automatic network configuration tools may suffer regressions. These are not as robust as the legacy ifupdown package. Check BTS of network-manager and BTS of wicd for current issues and limitations.

Official documentations for NM and Wicd on Debian are provided in "/usr/share/doc/network-manager/README.Debian" and "/usr/share/doc/wicd/README.Debian", respectively. Essentially, the network configuration for desktop is done as follows. Make desktop user, e.g. foo, belong to group "netdev" by the following (Alternatively, do it automatically via D-bus under modern desktop environments such as GNOME and KDE). $ sudo adduser foo netdev Keep configuration of "/etc/network/interfaces" as simple as in the following. auto lo iface lo inet loopback Restart NM or Wicd by the following. $ sudo /etc/init.d/network-manager restart $ sudo /etc/init.d/wicd restart Configure your network via GUI. Only interfaces which are not listed in "/etc/network/interfaces" are managed by NM or Wicd to avoid conflict with ifupdown. If you wish to extend network configuration capabilities of NM, please seek appropriate plug-in modules and supplemental packages such as network-manager-openconnect, network-manager-openvpn-gnome, network-manager-pptp-gnome, mobile-broadband-provider-info, gnome-bluetooth, etc. The same goes for those of Wicd. These automatic network configuration tools may not be compatible with esoteric configurations of legacy ifupdown in "/etc/network/interfaces" such as ones in and . Check BTS of network-manager and BTS of wicd for current issues and limitations.

Under systemd, the network may be configured in /etc/systemd/network/ instead. See systemd-resolved8, resolved.conf5, and systemd-networkd8. This allows the modern network configuration without GUI. A DHCP client configuration can be set up by creating "/etc/systemd/network/dhcp.network". E.g.: [Match] Name=en* [Network] DHCP=yes A static network configuration can be set up by creating "/etc/systemd/network/static.network". E.g.: [Match] Name=en* [Network] Address=192.168.0.15/24 Gateway=192.168.0.1

When the method described in does not suffice your needs, you should use the legacy network connection and configuration method which combines many simpler tools. The legacy network connection is specific for each method (see ). There are 2 types of programs for the low level network configuration on Linux (see ). Old net-tools programs (ifconfig8, …) are from the Linux NET-3 networking system. Most of these are obsolete now. New Linux iproute2 programs (ip8, …) are the current Linux networking system. Although these low level networking programs are powerful, they are cumbersome to use. So high level network configuration systems have been created. The ifupdown package is the de facto standard for such high level network configuration system on Debian. It enables you to bring up network simply by doing , e.g., "ifup eth0". Its configuration file is the "/etc/network/interfaces" file and its typical contents are the following. auto lo iface lo inet loopback auto eth0 iface eth0 inet dhcp The resolvconf package was created to supplement ifupdown system to support smooth reconfiguration of network address resolution by automating rewrite of resolver configuration file "/etc/resolv.conf". Now, most Debian network configuration packages are modified to use resolvconf package (see "/usr/share/doc/resolvconf/README.Debian"). Helper scripts to the ifupdown package such as ifplugd, guessnet, ifscheme, etc. are created to automate dynamic configuration of network environment such as one for mobile PC on wired LAN. These are relatively difficult to use but play well with existing ifupdown system. These are explained in detail with examples (see and ).

The connection test methods described in this section are meant for testing purposes. It is not meant to be used directly for the daily network connection. You are advised to use NM, Wicd, or the ifupdown package instead (see and ). The typical network connection method and connection path for a PC can be summarized as the following. PC connection method connection path Serial port (ppp0) PPP ⇔ modem ⇔ POTS ⇔ dial-up access point ⇔ ISP Ethernet port (eth0) PPPoE/DHCP/Static ⇔ BB-modem ⇔ BB service ⇔ BB access point ⇔ ISP Ethernet port (eth0) DHCP/Static ⇔ LAN ⇔ BB-router with network address translation (NAT) (⇔ BB-modem …) Here is the summary of configuration scripts for each connection method. connection method configuration backend package(s) PPP pppconfig to create deterministic chat pppconfig, ppp PPP (alternative) wvdialconf to create heuristic chat ppp, wvdial PPPoE pppoeconf to create deterministic chat pppoeconf, ppp DHCP described in "/etc/dhcp/dhclient.conf" isc-dhcp-client static IP (IPv4) described in "/etc/network/interfaces" iproute or net-tools (obsolete) static IP (IPv6) described in "/etc/network/interfaces" iproute The network connection acronyms mean the following. acronym meaning POTS plain old telephone service BB broadband BB-service e.g., the digital subscriber line (DSL), the cable TV, or the fiber to the premises (FTTP) BB-modem e.g., the DSL modem, the cable modem, or the optical network terminal (ONT) LAN local area network WAN wide area network DHCP dynamic host configuration protocol PPP point-to-point protocol PPPoE point-to-point protocol over Ethernet ISP Internet service provider The WAN connection services via cable TV are generally served by DHCP or PPPoE. The ones by ADSL and FTTP are generally served by PPPoE. You have to consult your ISP for exact configuration requirements of the WAN connection. When BB-router is used to create home LAN environment, PCs on LAN are connected to the WAN via BB-router with network address translation (NAT). For such case, PC's network interfaces on the LAN are served by static IP or DHCP from the BB-router. BB-router must be configured to connect the WAN following the instruction by your ISP.

The typical modern home and small business network, i.e. LAN, are connected to the WAN (Internet) using some consumer grade broadband router. The LAN behind this router is usually served by the dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) server running on the router. Just install the isc-dhcp-client package for the Ethernet served by the dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP). See dhclient.conf5.

No special action is needed for the Ethernet served by the static IP.

The configuration script pppconfig configures the PPP connection interactively just by selecting the following. The telephone number The ISP user name The ISP password The port speed The modem communication port The authentication method file function /etc/ppp/peers/<isp_name> The pppconfig generated configuration file for pppd specific to <isp_name> /etc/chatscripts/<isp_name> The pppconfig generated configuration file for chat specific to <isp_name> /etc/ppp/options The general execution parameter for pppd /etc/ppp/pap-secret Authentication data for the PAP (security risk) /etc/ppp/chap-secret Authentication data for the CHAP (more secure) The "<isp_name>" value of "provider" is assumed if pon and poff commands are invoked without arguments. You can test configuration using low level network configuration tools as the following. $ sudo pon <isp_name> ... $ sudo poff <isp_name> See "/usr/share/doc/ppp/README.Debian.gz".

A different approach to using pppd8 is to run it from wvdial1 which comes in the wvdial package. Instead of pppd running chat8 to dial in and negotiate the connection, wvdial does the dialing and initial negotiating and then starts pppd to do the rest. The configuration script wvdialconf configures the PPP connection interactively just by selecting the following. The telephone number The ISP user name The ISP password wvdial succeeds in making the connection in most cases and maintains authentication data list automatically. file function /etc/ppp/peers/wvdial The wvdialconf generated configuration file for pppd specific to wvdial /etc/wvdial.conf The wvdialconf generated configuration file /etc/ppp/options The general execution parameter for pppd /etc/ppp/pap-secret Authentication data for the PAP (security risk) /etc/ppp/chap-secret Authentication data for the CHAP (more secure) You can test configuration using low level network configuration tools as the following. $ sudo wvdial ... $ sudo killall wvdial See wvdial1 and wvdial.conf5.

When your ISP serves you with PPPoE connection and you decide to connect your PC directly to the WAN, the network of your PC must be configured with the PPPoE. The PPPoE stand for PPP over Ethernet. The configuration script pppoeconf configures the PPPoE connection interactively. The configuration files are the following. file function /etc/ppp/peers/dsl-provider The pppoeconf generated configuration file for pppd specific to pppoe /etc/ppp/options The general execution parameter for pppd /etc/ppp/pap-secret Authentication data for the PAP (security risk) /etc/ppp/chap-secret Authentication data for the CHAP (more secure) You can test configuration using low level network configuration tools as the following. $ sudo /sbin/ifconfig eth0 up $ sudo pon dsl-provider ... $ sudo poff dsl-provider $ sudo /sbin/ifconfig eth0 down See "/usr/share/doc/pppoeconf/README.Debian".

The traditional TCP/IP network setup on the Debian system uses ifupdown package as a high level tool. There are 2 typical cases. For dynamic IP system such as mobile PCs, you should setup TCP/IP network with the resolvconf package and enable you to switch your network configuration easily (see ). For static IP system such as servers, you should setup TCP/IP network without the resolvconf package and keep your system simple (see ). These traditional setup methods are quite useful if you wish to set up advanced configuration; find details in the following. The ifupdown package provides the standardized framework for the high level network configuration in the Debian system. In this section, we learn the basic network configuration with ifupdown with simplified introduction and many typical examples.

The ifupdown package contains 2 commands: ifup8 and ifdown8. They offer high level network configuration dictated by the configuration file "/etc/network/interfaces". command action ifup eth0 bring up a network interface eth0 with the configuration eth0 if "iface eth0" stanza exists ifdown eth0 bring down a network interface eth0 with the configuration eth0 if "iface eth0" stanza exists Do not use low level configuration tools such as ifconfig8 and ip8 commands to configure an interface in up state. There is no command ifupdown.

The key syntax of "/etc/network/interfaces" as explained in interfaces5 can be summarized as the following. stanza meaning "auto <interface_name>" start interface <interface_name> upon start of the system "allow-auto <interface_name>" , , "allow-hotplug <interface_name>" start interface <interface_name> when the kernel detects a hotplug event from the interface Lines started with "iface <config_name> …" define the network configuration <config_name> Lines started with "mapping <interface_name_glob>" define mapping value of <config_name> for the matching <interface_name> A line starting with a hash "#" ignore as comments (end-of-line comments are not supported) A line ending with a backslash "\" extend the configuration to the next line Lines started with iface stanza has the following syntax. iface <config_name> <address_family> <method_name> <option1> <value1> <option2> <value2> ... For the basic configuration, the mapping stanza is not used and you use the network interface name as the network configuration name (See ). Do not define duplicates of the "iface" stanza for a network interface in "/etc/network/interfaces".

The following configuration entry in the "/etc/network/interfaces" file brings up the loopback network interface lo upon booting the system (via auto stanza). auto lo iface lo inet loopback This one always exists in the "/etc/network/interfaces" file.

After preparing the system by , the network interface served by the DHCP is configured by creating the configuration entry in the "/etc/network/interfaces" file as the following. allow-hotplug eth0 iface eth0 inet dhcp When the Linux kernel detects the physical interface eth0, the allow-hotplug stanza causes ifup to bring up the interface and the iface stanza causes ifup to use DHCP to configure the interface.

The network interface served by the static IP is configured by creating the configuration entry in the "/etc/network/interfaces" file as the following. allow-hotplug eth0 iface eth0 inet static address 192.168.11.100 netmask 255.255.255.0 gateway 192.168.11.1 dns-domain example.com dns-nameservers 192.168.11.1 When the Linux kernel detects the physical interface eth0, the allow-hotplug stanza causes ifup to bring up the interface and the iface stanza causes ifup to use the static IP to configure the interface. Here, I assumed the following. IP address range of the LAN network: 192.168.11.0 - 192.168.11.255 IP address of the gateway: 192.168.11.1 IP address of the PC: 192.168.11.100 The resolvconf package: installed The domain name: "example.com" IP address of the DNS server: 192.168.11.1 When the resolvconf package is not installed, DNS related configuration needs to be done manually by editing the "/etc/resolv.conf" as the following. nameserver 192.168.11.1 domain example.com The IP addresses used in the above example are not meant to be copied literally. You have to adjust IP numbers to your actual network configuration.

The wireless LAN (WLAN for short) provides the fast wireless connectivity through the spread-spectrum communication of unlicensed radio bands based on the set of standards called IEEE 802.11. The WLAN interfaces are almost like normal Ethernet interfaces but require some network ID and encryption key data to be provided when they are initialized. Their high level network tools are exactly the same as that of Ethernet interfaces except interface names are a bit different like eth1, wlan0, ath0, wifi0, … depending on the kernel drivers used. The wmaster0 device is the master device which is an internal device used only by SoftMAC with new mac80211 API of Linux. Here are some keywords to remember for the WLAN. acronym full word meaning NWID Network ID 16 bit network ID used by pre-802.11 WaveLAN network (very deprecated) (E)SSID (Extended) Service Set Identifier network name of the Wireless Access Points (APs) interconnected to form an integrated 802.11 wireless LAN, Domain ID WEP, (WEP2) Wired Equivalent Privacy 1st generation 64-bit (128-bit) wireless encryption standard with 40-bit key (deprecated) WPA Wi-Fi Protected Access 2nd generation wireless encryption standard (most of 802.11i), compatible with WEP WPA2 Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 3rd generation wireless encryption standard (full 802.11i), non-compatible with WEP The actual choice of protocol is usually limited by the wireless router you deploy.

You need to install the wpasupplicant package to support the WLAN with the new WPA/WPA2. In case of the DHCP served IP on WLAN connection, the "/etc/network/interfaces" file entry should be as the following. allow-hotplug ath0 iface ath0 inet dhcp wpa-ssid homezone # hexadecimal psk is encoded from a plaintext passphrase wpa-psk 000102030405060708090a0b0c0d0e0f101112131415161718191a1b1c1d1e1f See "/usr/share/doc/wpasupplicant/README.modes.gz".

You need to install the wireless-tools package to support the WLAN with the old WEP. (Your consumer grade router may still be using this insecure infrastructure but this is better than nothing.) Please note that your network traffic on WLAN with WEP may be sniffed by others. In case of the DHCP served IP on WLAN connection, the "/etc/network/interfaces" file entry should be as the following. allow-hotplug eth0 iface eth0 inet dhcp wireless-essid Home wireless-key1 0123-4567-89ab-cdef wireless-key2 12345678 wireless-key3 s:password wireless-defaultkey 2 wireless-keymode open See "/usr/share/doc/wireless-tools/README.Debian".

You need to configure the PPP connection first as described before (see ). Then, add the "/etc/network/interfaces" file entry for the primary PPP device ppp0 as the following. iface ppp0 inet ppp provider <isp_name>

You need to configure the alternative PPP connection with wvdial first as described before (see ). Then, add the "/etc/network/interfaces" file entry for the primary PPP device ppp0 as the following. iface ppp0 inet wvdial

For PC connected directly to the WAN served by the PPPoE, you need to configure system with the PPPoE connection as described before (see ). Then, add the "/etc/network/interfaces" file entry for the primary PPPoE device eth0 as the following. allow-hotplug eth0 iface eth0 inet manual pre-up /sbin/ifconfig eth0 up up ifup ppp0=dsl down ifdown ppp0=dsl post-down /sbin/ifconfig eth0 down # The following is used internally only iface dsl inet ppp provider dsl-provider

The "/etc/network/run/ifstate" file stores the intended network configuration states for all the currently active network interfaces managed by the ifupdown package. Unfortunately, even if the ifupdown system fails to bring up the interface as intended, the "/etc/network/run/ifstate" file lists it active. Unless the output of the ifconfig8 command for an interface does not have a line like following example, it can not be used as a part of IPV4 network. inet addr:192.168.11.2 Bcast:192.168.11.255 Mask:255.255.255.0 For the Ethernet device connected to the PPPoE, the output of the ifconfig8 command lacks a line which looks like above example.

When you try to reconfigure the interface, e.g. eth0, you must disable it first with the "sudo ifdown eth0" command. This removes the entry of eth0 from the "/etc/network/run/ifstate" file. (This may result in some error message if eth0 is not active or it is configured improperly previously. So far, it seems to be safe to do this for the simple single user work station at any time.) You are now free to rewrite the "/etc/network/interfaces" contents as needed to reconfigure the network interface, eth0. Then, you can reactivate eth0 with the "sudo ifup eth0" command. You can (re)initialize the network interface simply by "sudo ifdown eth0;sudo ifup eth0".

The ifupdown-extra package provides easy network connection tests for use with the ifupdown package. The network-test1 command can be used from the shell. The automatic scripts are run for each ifup command execution. The network-test command frees you from the execution of cumbersome low level commands to analyze the network problem. The automatic scripts are installed in "/etc/network/*/" and perform the following. Check the network cable connection Check duplicate use of IP address Setup system's static routes based on the "/etc/network/routes" definition Check if network gateway is reachable Record results in the "/var/log/syslog" file This syslog record is quite useful for administration of the network problem on the remote system. The automatic behavior of the ifupdown-extra package is configurable with the "/etc/default/network-test". Some of these automatic checks slow down the system boot-up a little bit since it takes some time to listen for ARP replies.

The functionality of the ifupdown package can be improved beyond what was described in with the advanced knowledge. The functionalities described here are completely optional. I, being lazy and minimalist, rarely bother to use these. If you could not set up network connection by information in , you make situation worse by using information below.

The ifplugd package is an older automatic network configuration tool which can manage only Ethernet connections. This solves unplugged/replugged Ethernet cable issues for mobile PC etc. If you have NetworkManager or Wicd (see ) installed, you do not need this package. This package runs a daemon and replaces auto or allow-hotplug functionalities (see ) and starts interfaces upon their connection to the network. Here is how to use the ifplugd package for the internal Ethernet port, e.g. eth0. Remove stanza in "/etc/network/interfaces": "auto eth0" or "allow-hotplug eth0". Keep stanza in "/etc/network/interfaces": "iface eth0 inet …" and "mapping …". Install the ifplugd package. Run "sudo dpkg-reconfigure ifplugd". Put eth0 as the "static interfaces to be watched by ifplugd". Now, the network reconfiguration works as you desire. Upon power-on or upon hardware discovery, the interface is not brought up by itself. Quick boot process without the long DHCP timeout. No funny activated interface without proper IPv4 address (see ). Upon finding the Ethernet cable, the interface is brought up. Upon some time after unplugging the Ethernet cable, the interface is brought down automatically. Upon plugging in another Ethernet cable, the interface is brought up under the new network environment. The arguments for the ifplugd8 command can set its behaviors such as the delay for reconfiguring interfaces.

The ifmetric package enables us to manipulate metrics of routes a posteriori even for DHCP. The following sets the eth0 interface to be preferred over the wlan0 interface. Install the ifmetric package. Add an option line with "metric 0" just below the "iface eth0 inet dhcp" line in "/etc/network/interfaces". Add an option line with "metric 1" just below the "iface wlan0 inet dhcp" line in "/etc/network/interfaces". The metric 0 means the highest priority route and is the default one. The larger metric value means lower priority routes. The IP address of the active interface with the lowest metric value becomes the originating one. See ifmetric8.

A single physical Ethernet interface can be configured as multiple virtual interfaces with different IP addresses. Usually the purpose is to connect an interface to several IP subnetworks. For example, IP address based virtual web hosting by a single network interface is one such application. For example, let's suppose the following. A single Ethernet interface on your host is connected to a Ethernet hub (not to the broadband router). The Ethernet hub is connected to both the Internet and LAN network. The LAN network uses subnet 192.168.0.x/24. Your host uses DHCP served IP address with the physical interface eth0 for the Internet. Your host uses 192.168.0.1 with the virtual interface eth0:0 for the LAN. The following stanzas in "/etc/network/interfaces" configure your network. iface eth0 inet dhcp metric 0 iface eth0:0 inet static address 192.168.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 network 192.168.0.0 metric 1 Although this configuration example with network address translation (NAT) using netfilter/iptables (see ) can provide cheap router for the LAN with only single interface, there is no real firewall capability with such set up. You should use 2 physical interfaces with NAT to secure the local network from the Internet.

The ifupdown package offers advanced network configuration using the network configuration name and the network interface name. I use a terminology being slightly different from the one used in ifup8 and interfaces5. manpage terminology my terminology examples in the following text description physical interface name network interface name lo, eth0, <interface_name> name given by the Linux kernel (using udev mechanism) logical interface name network configuration name config1, config2, <config_name> name token following iface in the "/etc/network/interfaces" Basic network configuration commands in require the network configuration name token of the iface stanza to match the network interface name in the "/etc/network/interfaces". Advanced network configuration commands enables separation of the network configuration name and the network interface name in the "/etc/network/interfaces" as the following. command action ifup eth0=config1 bring up a network interface eth0 with the configuration config1 ifdown eth0=config1 bring down a network interface eth0 with the configuration config1 ifup eth0 bring up a network interface eth0 with the configuration selected by mapping stanza ifdown eth0 bring down a network interface eth0 with the configuration selected by mapping stanza

We skipped explaining the mapping stanza in the "/etc/network/interfaces" in to avoid complication. This stanza has the following syntax. mapping <interface_name_glob> script <script_name> map <script_input1> map <script_input2> map ... This provides advanced features to the "/etc/network/interfaces" file by automating the choice of the configuration with the mapping script specified by <script_name>. Let's follow the execution of the following. $ sudo ifup eth0 When the "<interface_name_glob>" matches "eth0", this execution produces the execution of the following command to configure eth0 automatically. $ sudo ifup eth0=$(echo -e '<script_input1> \n <script_input2> \n ...' | <script_name> eth0) Here, script input lines with "map" are optional and can be repeated. The glob for mapping stanza works like shell filename glob (see ).

Here is how to switch manually among several network configurations without rewriting the "/etc/network/interfaces" file as in . For all the network configuration you need to access, you create a separate stanza in "/etc/network/interfaces" file as the following. auto lo iface lo inet loopback iface config1 inet dhcp iface config2 inet static address 192.168.11.100 netmask 255.255.255.0 gateway 192.168.11.1 dns-domain example.com dns-nameservers 192.168.11.1 iface pppoe inet manual pre-up /sbin/ifconfig eth0 up up ifup ppp0=dsl down ifdown ppp0=dsl post-down /sbin/ifconfig eth0 down # The following is used internally only iface dsl inet ppp provider dsl-provider iface pots inet ppp provider provider Please note the network configuration name which is the token after iface does not use the token for the network interface name. Also, there are no auto stanza nor allow-hotplug stanza to start the network interface eth0 automatically upon events. Now you are ready to switch the network configuration. Let's move your PC to a LAN served by the DHCP. You bring up the network interface (the physical interface) eth0 by assigning the network configuration name (the logical interface name) config1 to it by the following. $ sudo ifup eth0=config1 Password: ... The interface eth0 is up, configured by DHCP and connected to LAN. $ sudo ifdown eth0=config1 ... The interface eth0 is down and disconnected from LAN. Let's move your PC to a LAN served by the static IP. You bring up the network interface eth0 by assigning the network configuration name config2 to it by the following. $ sudo ifup eth0=config2 ... The interface eth0 is up, configured with static IP and connected to LAN. The additional parameters given as dns-* configures "/etc/resolv.conf" contents. This "/etc/resolv.conf" is better manged if the resolvconf package is installed. $ sudo ifdown eth0=config2 ... The interface eth0 is down and disconnected from LAN, again. Let's move your PC to a port on BB-modem connected to the PPPoE served service. You bring up the network interface eth0 by assigning the network configuration name pppoe to it by the following. $ sudo ifup eth0=pppoe ... The interface eth0 is up, configured with PPPoE connection directly to the ISP. $ sudo ifdown eth0=pppoe ... The interface eth0 is down and disconnected, again. Let's move your PC to a location without LAN or BB-modem but with POTS and modem. You bring up the network interface ppp0 by assigning the network configuration name pots to it by the following. $ sudo ifup ppp0=pots ... The interface ppp0 is up and connected to the Internet with PPP. $ sudo ifdown ppp0=pots ... The interface ppp0 is down and disconnected from the Internet. You should check the "/etc/network/run/ifstate" file for the current network configuration state of the ifupdown system. You may need to adjust numbers at the end of eth*, ppp*, etc. if you have multiple network interfaces.

The ifupdown system automatically runs scripts installed in "/etc/network/*/" while exporting environment variables to scripts. environment variable value passed "$IFACE" physical name (interface name) of the interface being processed "$LOGICAL" logical name (configuration name) of the interface being processed "$ADDRFAM" <address_family> of the interface "$METHOD" <method_name> of the interface (e.g., "static") "$MODE" "start" if run from ifup, "stop" if run from ifdown "$PHASE" as per "$MODE", but with finer granularity, distinguishing the pre-up, post-up, pre-down and post-down phases "$VERBOSITY" indicates whether "--verbose" was used; set to 1 if so, 0 if not "$PATH" command search path: "/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/sbin:/bin" "$IF_<OPTION>" value for the corresponding option under the iface stanza Here, each environment variable, "$IF_<OPTION>", is created from the name for the corresponding option such as <option1> and <option2> by prepending "$IF_", converting the case to the upper case, replacing hyphens to underscores, and discarding non-alphanumeric characters. See for <address_family>, <method_name>, <option1> and <option2>. The ifupdown-extra package (see ) uses these environment variables to extend the functionality of the ifupdown package. The ifmetric package (see ) installs the "/etc/network/if-up.d/ifmetric" script which sets the metric via the "$IF_METRIC" variable. The guessnet package (see ), which provides simple and powerful framework for the auto-selection of the network configuration via the mapping mechanism, also uses these. For more specific examples of custom network configuration scripts using these environment variables, you should check example scripts in "/usr/share/doc/ifupdown/examples/*" and scripts used in ifscheme and ifupdown-scripts-zg2 packages. These additional scripts have some overlaps of functionalities with basic ifupdown-extra and guessnet packages. If you install these additional scripts, you should customize these scripts to avoid interferences.

Instead of manually choosing configuration as described in , you can use the mapping mechanism described in to select network configuration automatically with custom scripts. The guessnet-ifupdown8 command provided by the guessnet package is designed to be used as a mapping script and provides powerful framework to enhance the ifupdown system. You list test condition as the value for guessnet options for each network configuration under iface stanza. Mapping choses the iface with first non-ERROR result as the network configuration. This dual usage of the "/etc/network/interfaces" file by the mapping script, guessnet-ifupdown, and the original network configuration infrastructure, ifupdown, does not cause negative impacts since guessnet options only export extra environment variables to scripts run by the ifupdown system. See details in guessnet-ifupdown8. When multiple guessnet option lines are required in "/etc/network/interfaces", use option lines started with guessnet1, guessnet2, and so on, since the ifupdown package does not allow starting strings of option lines to be repeated.

Iproute2 commands offer complete low-level network configuration capabilities. Here is a translation table from obsolete net-tools commands to new iproute2 etc. commands. obsolete net-tools new iproute2 etc. manipulation ifconfig8 ip addr protocol (IP or IPv6) address on a device route8 ip route routing table entry arp8 ip neigh ARP or NDISC cache entry ipmaddr ip maddr multicast address iptunnel ip tunnel tunnel over IP nameif8 ifrename8 name network interfaces based on MAC addresses mii-tool8 ethtool8 Ethernet device settings See ip8 and IPROUTE2 Utility Suite Howto.

You may use low level network commands as follows safely since they do not change network configuration. command description ifconfig display the link and address status of active interfaces ip addr show display the link and address status of active interfaces route -n display all the routing table in numerical addresses ip route show display all the routing table in numerical addresses arp display the current content of the ARP cache tables ip neigh display the current content of the ARP cache tables plog display ppp daemon log ping yahoo.com check the Internet connection to "yahoo.com" whois yahoo.com check who registered "yahoo.com" in the domains database traceroute yahoo.com trace the Internet connection to "yahoo.com" tracepath yahoo.com trace the Internet connection to "yahoo.com" mtr yahoo.com trace the Internet connection to "yahoo.com" (repeatedly) dig [@dns-server.com] example.com [{a|mx|any}] check DNS records of "example.com" by "dns-server.com" for a "a", "mx", or "any" record iptables -L -n check packet filter netstat -a find all open ports netstat -l --inet find listening ports netstat -ln --tcp find listening TCP ports (numeric) dlint example.com check DNS zone information of "example.com" Some of these low level network configuration tools reside in "/sbin/". You may need to issue full command path such as "/sbin/ifconfig" or add "/sbin" to the "$PATH" list in your "~/.bashrc".

Generic network optimization is beyond the scope of this documentation. I touch only subjects pertinent to the consumer grade connection. packages popcon size description iftop @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ display bandwidth usage information on an network interface iperf @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Internet Protocol bandwidth measuring tool ifstat @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ InterFace STATistics Monitoring bmon @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ portable bandwidth monitor and rate estimator ethstatus @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ script that quickly measures network device throughput bing @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ empirical stochastic bandwidth tester bwm-ng @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ small and simple console-based bandwidth monitor ethstats @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ console-based Ethernet statistics monitor ipfm @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ bandwidth analysis tool

The Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) value can be determined experimentally with ping8 with "-M do" option which sends ICMP packets with data size starting from 1500 (with offset of 28 bytes for the IP+ICMP header) and finding the largest size without IP fragmentation. For example, try the following $ ping -c 1 -s $((1500-28)) -M do www.debian.org PING www.debian.org (194.109.137.218) 1472(1500) bytes of data. From 192.168.11.2 icmp_seq=1 Frag needed and DF set (mtu = 1454) --- www.debian.org ping statistics --- 0 packets transmitted, 0 received, +1 errors Try 1454 instead of 1500 You see ping8 succeed with 1454. This process is Path MTU (PMTU) discovery (RFC1191) and the tracepath8 command can automate this. The above example with PMTU value of 1454 is for my previous FTTP provider which used Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) as its backbone network and served its clients with the PPPoE. The actual PMTU value depends on your environment, e.g., 1500 for the my new FTTP provider. network environment MTU rationale Dial-up link (IP: PPP) 576 standard Ethernet link (IP: DHCP or fixed) 1500 standard and default Ethernet link (IP: PPPoE) 1492 (=1500-8) 2 bytes for PPP header and 6 bytes for PPPoE header Ethernet link (ISP's backbone: ATM, IP: DHCP or fixed) 1462 (=48*31-18-8) author's speculation: 18 bytes for Ethernet header, 8 bytes for SAR trailer Ethernet link (ISP's backbone: ATM, IP: PPPoE) 1454 (=48*31-8-18-8) see "Optimal MTU configuration for PPPoE ADSL Connections" for rationale In addtion to these basic guide lines, you should know the following. Any use of tunneling methods (VPN etc.) may reduce optimal MTU further by their overheads. The MTU value should not exceed the experimentally determined PMTU value. The bigger MTU value is generally better when other limitations are met.

Here are examples for setting the MTU value from its default 1500 to 1454. For the DHCP (see ), you can replace pertinent iface stanza lines in the "/etc/network/interfaces" with the following. iface eth0 inet dhcp pre-up /sbin/ifconfig $IFACE mtu 1454 For the static IP (see ), you can replace pertinent iface stanza lines in the "/etc/network/interfaces" with the following. iface eth0 inet static address 192.168.11.100 netmask 255.255.255.0 gateway 192.168.11.1 mtu 1454 dns-domain example.com dns-nameservers 192.168.11.1 For the direct PPPoE (see ), you can replace pertinent "mtu" line in the "/etc/ppp/peers/dsl-provider" with the following. mtu 1454 The maximum segment size (MSS) is used as an alternative measure of packet size. The relationship between MSS and MTU are the following. MSS = MTU - 40 for IPv4 MSS = MTU - 60 for IPv6 The iptables8 (see ) based optimization can clamp packet size by the MSS and is useful for the router. See "TCPMSS" in iptables8.

The TCP throughput can be maximized by adjusting TCP buffer size parameters as described in "TCP Tuning Guide" and "TCP tuning" for the modern high-bandwidth and high-latency WAN. So far, the current Debian default settings serve well even for my LAN connected by the fast 1G bps FTTP service.

Netfilter provides infrastructure for stateful firewall and network address translation (NAT) with Linux kernel modules (see ). packages popcon size description iptables @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ administration tools for netfilter (iptables8 for IPv4, ip6tables8 for IPv6) arptables @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ administration tools for netfilter (arptables8 for ARP) ebtables @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ administration tools for netfilter (ebtables8 for Ethernet bridging) iptstate @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ continuously monitor netfilter state (similar to top1) shorewall-init @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Shoreline Firewall initialization shorewall @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Shoreline Firewall, netfilter configuration file generator shorewall-lite @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Shoreline Firewall, netfilter configuration file generator (light version) shorewall6 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Shoreline Firewall, netfilter configuration file generator (IPv6 version) shorewall6-lite @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Shoreline Firewall, netfilter configuration file generator (IPv6, light version) Main user space program of netfilter is iptables8. You can manually configure netfilter interactively from shell, save its state with iptables-save8, and restore it via init script with iptables-restore8 upon system reboot. Configuration helper scripts such as shorewall ease this process. See documentations at http://www.netfilter.org/documentation/ (or in "/usr/share/doc/iptables/html/"). Linux Networking-concepts HOWTO Linux 2.4 Packet Filtering HOWTO Linux 2.4 NAT HOWTO Although these were written for Linux 2.4, both iptables8 command and netfilter kernel function apply for Linux 2.6 and 3.x kernel series.

After establishing network connectivity (see ), you can run various network applications. For modern Debian specific guide to the network infrastructure, read The Debian Administrator's Handbook — Network Infrastructure. If you enabled "2-Step Verification" with some ISP, you need to obtain an application password to access POP and SMTP services from your program. You may need to approve your host IP in advance.

There are many web browser packages to access remote contents with Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). package popcon size type description of web browser chromium @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ X Chromium, (open-source browser from Google) firefox @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , Firefox, (open-source browser from Mozilla, only available in Debian Unstable) firefox-esr @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , Firefox ESR, (Firefox Extended Support Release) epiphany-browser @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , GNOME, HIG compliant, Epiphany konqueror @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , KDE, Konqueror dillo @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , Dillo, (light weight browser, FLTK based) w3m @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text w3m lynx @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , Lynx elinks @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , ELinks links @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , Links (text only) links2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ graphics Links (console graphics without X)

You may be able to use following special URL strings for some browsers to confirm their settings. "about:" "about:config" "about:plugins" Debian offers many free browser plugin packages in the main archive area which can handle not only Java (software platform) and Flash but also MPEG, MPEG2, MPEG4, DivX, Windows Media Video (.wmv), QuickTime (.mov), MP3 (.mp3), Ogg/Vorbis files, DVDs, VCDs, etc. Debian also offers helper programs to install non-free browser plugin packages as contrib or non-free archive area. package popcon size area description icedtea-plugin @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ main Java plugin based on OpenJDK and IcedTea flashplugin-nonfree @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ contrib Flash plugin helper to install Adobe Flash Player (i386, amd64 only) Although use of above Debian packages are much easier, browser plugins can be still manually enabled by installing "*.so" into plugin directories (e.g., "/usr/lib/iceweasel/plugins/") and restarting browsers. Some web sites refuse to be connected based on the user-agent string of your browser. You can work around this situation by spoofing the user-agent string. For example, you can do this by adding following line into user configuration files such as "~/.gnome2/epiphany/mozilla/epiphany/user.js" or "~/.mozilla/firefox/*.default/user.js". user_pref{"general.useragent.override","Mozilla/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 7.0; Windows NT 6.0)"}; Alternatively, you can add and reset this variable by typing "about:config" into URL and right clicking its display contents. Spoofed user-agent string may cause bad side effects with Java.

If you are to set up the mail server to exchange mail directly with the Internet, you should be better than reading this elementary document. The mail system involves many server programs and many client programs running on multiple hosts. From the functionality, there are 3 types of mail agent programs: The mail transport agent (MTA, see ) is a program for transferring mails between different hosts. The mail delivery agent (MDA, see ) is a program for delivering messages to the users' mailboxes within a host. The mail user agent (MUA, also known as email client, see ) is the program to generate messages and to access delivered messages. The following configuration examples are only valid for the typical mobile workstation on consumer grade Internet connections.

An email message consists of three components, the message envelope, the message header, and the message body. The "To" and "From" information in the message envelope is used by the SMTP to deliver the email. (The "From" information in the message envelope is also called bounce address, From_, etc.). The "To" and "From" information in the message header is displayed by the email client. (While it is most common for these to be the same as ones in the message envelope, such is not always the case.) The email client (MUA) needs to interpret the message header and body data using Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) to deal the content data type and encoding.

In order to minimize exposure to the spam (unwanted and unsolicited email) problems, many ISPs which provide consumer grade Internet connections are implementing counter measures. The smarthost service for their customers to send message uses the message submission port (587) specified in rfc4409 with the password (SMTP AUTH service) specified in rfc4954. The SMTP port (25) connection from their internal network hosts (except ISP's own outgoing mail server) to the Internet are blocked. The SMTP port (25) connection to the ISP's incoming mail server from some suspicious external network hosts are blocked. (The connection from hosts on the dynamic IP address range used by the dial-up and other consumer grade Internet connections are the first ones to be blocked.) Anti-spam techniques such as DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM), Sender_Policy_Framework (SPF), and Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting and Conformance (DMARC) are widely used for the email filtering. The DomainKeys Identified Mail service may be provided for your mail sent through the smarthost. The smarthost may rewrite the source mail address to your mail account on the smarthost. When configuring your mail system or resolving mail delivery problems, you must consider these new limitations. It is not realistic to run SMTP server on consumer grade network to send mail directly to the remote host reliably. It is not realistic to expect a single smarthost to send mails of unrelated source mail addresses to the remote host reliably. A mail may be rejected by any host en route to the destination quietly. Making your mail to appear as authentic as possible is the only way to send a mail to the remote host reliably. In light of these hostile Internet situation and limitations, some independent Internet mail ISPs such as Yahoo.com and Gmail.com offer the secure mail service which can be connected from anywhere on the Internet using Transport Layer Security (TLS) and its predecessor, Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). The smarthost service on port 465 with the deprecated SMTP over SSL (SMTPS protocol). The smarthost service on port 587 with the STARTTLS. The incoming mail is accessible at the TLS/POP3 port (995) with POP3. For the simplicity, I assume that the smarthost is located at "smtp.hostname.dom", requires SMTP Authentication, and uses the message submission port (587) with the STARTTLS in the following text.

The most simple mail configuration is that the mail is sent to the ISP's smarthost and received from ISP's POP3 server by the MUA (see ) itself. This type of configuration is popular with full featured GUI based MUA such as icedove1, evolution1, etc. If you need to filter mail by their types, you use MUA's filtering function. For this case, the local MTA (see ) need to do local delivery only (when sender and receiver are on the same host). Please note that the Debian system is the multiuser system. Even if you are the only user, there are many programs running as root and they may send you a mail. The alternative mail configuration is that the mail is sent via local MTA to the ISP's smarthost and received from ISP's POP3 by the mail retriever (see ) to the local mailbox. If you need to filter mail by their types, you use MDA with filter (see ) to filter mail into separate mailboxes. This type of configuration is popular with simple console based MUA such as mutt1, mew1, etc., although this is possible with any MUAs (see ). For this case, the local MTA (see ) need to do both smarthost delivery and local delivery. Since mobile workstation does not have valid FQDN, you must configure the local MTA to hide and spoof the real local mail name in outgoing mail to avoid mail delivery errors (see ). You may wish to configure MUA/MDA to use Maildir for storing email messages somewhere under your home directory.

For normal workstation, the popular choice for Mail transport agent (MTA) is either exim4-* or postfix packages. It is really up to you. package popcon size description exim4-daemon-light @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Exim4 mail transport agent (MTA: Debian default) exim4-base @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Exim4 documentation (text) and common files exim4-doc-html @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Exim4 documentation (html) exim4-doc-info @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Exim4 documentation (info) postfix @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Postfix mail transport agent (MTA: alternative) postfix-doc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Postfix documentation (html+text) sasl2-bin @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Cyrus SASL API implementation (supplement postfix for SMTP AUTH) cyrus-sasl2-doc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Cyrus SASL - documentation Although the popcon vote count of exim4-* looks several times popular than that of postfix, this does not mean postfix is not popular with Debian developers. The Debian server system uses both exim4 and postfix. The mail header analysis of mailing list postings from prominent Debian developers also indicate both of these MTAs are as popular. The exim4-* packages are known to have very small memory consumption and very flexible for its configuration. The postfix package is known to be compact, fast, simple, and secure. Both come with ample documentation and are as good in quality and license. There are many choices for mail transport agent (MTA) packages with different capability and focus in Debian archive. package popcon size capability and focus exim4-daemon-light @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ full postfix @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ full (security) exim4-daemon-heavy @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ full (flexible) sendmail-bin @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ full (only if you are already familiar) nullmailer @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ strip down, no local mail ssmtp @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ strip down, no local mail courier-mta @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ very full (web interface etc.) masqmail @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ light esmtp @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ light esmtp-run @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ light (sendmail compatibility extension to esmtp) msmtp @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ light msmtp-mta @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ light (sendmail compatibility extension to msmtp)

Configuring exim4 to send the Internet mail via multiple corresponding smarthosts for multiple source email addresses is non-trivial. Please set up exim4 only for a single email address for the system programs such as popcon and cron and set up msmtp for multiple source email addresses for the user programs such as mutt. For the Internet mail via smarthost, you (re)configure exim4-* packages as the following. $ sudo /etc/init.d/exim4 stop $ sudo dpkg-reconfigure exim4-config Select "mail sent by smarthost; received via SMTP or fetchmail" for "General type of mail configuration". Set "System mail name:" to its default as the FQDN (see ). Set "IP-addresses to listen on for incoming SMTP connections:" to its default as "127.0.0.1 ; ::1". Unset contents of "Other destinations for which mail is accepted:". Unset contents of "Machines to relay mail for:". Set "IP address or host name of the outgoing smarthost:" to "smtp.hostname.dom:587". Select "<No>" for "Hide local mail name in outgoing mail?". (Use "/etc/email-addresses" as in , instead.) Reply to "Keep number of DNS-queries minimal (Dial-on-Demand)?" as one of the following. "No" if the system is connected to the Internet while booting. "Yes" if the system is not connected to the Internet while booting. Set "Delivery method for local mail:" to "mbox format in /var/mail/". Select "<Yes>" for "Split configuration into small files?:". Create password entries for the smarthost by editing "/etc/exim4/passwd.client". $ sudo vim /etc/exim4/passwd.client ... $ cat /etc/exim4/passwd.client ^smtp.*\.hostname\.dom:username@hostname.dom:password Start exim4 by the following. $ sudo /etc/init.d/exim4 start The host name in "/etc/exim4/passwd.client" should not be the alias. You check the real host name with the following. $ host smtp.hostname.dom smtp.hostname.dom is an alias for smtp99.hostname.dom. smtp99.hostname.dom has address 123.234.123.89 I use regex in "/etc/exim4/passwd.client" to work around the alias issue. SMTP AUTH probably works even if the ISP moves host pointed by the alias. You can manually update exim4 configuration by the following: Update exim4 configuration files in "/etc/exim4/". creating "/etc/exim4/exim4.conf.localmacros" to set MACROs and editing "/etc/exim4/exim4.conf.template". (non-split configuration) creating new files or editing existing files in the "/etc/exim4/exim4.conf.d" subdirectories. (split configuration) Run "invoke-rc.d exim4 reload". Please read the official guide at: "/usr/share/doc/exim4-base/README.Debian.gz" and update-exim4.conf8. Starting exim4 takes long time if "No" (default value) was chosen for the debconf query of "Keep number of DNS-queries minimal (Dial-on-Demand)?" and the system is not connected to the Internet while booting. It is insecure to use plain text password without encryption even if your ISP allows it. Although use of SMTP with STARTTLS on port 587 is recommended, some ISPs still use deprecated SMTPS (SSL on port 465). Exim4 after 4.77 supports this deprecated SMTPS protocol for both as client and as server. If you are looking for a light weight MTA that respects "/etc/aliases" for your laptop PC, you should consider to configure exim48 with "QUEUERUNNER='queueonly'", "QUEUERUNNER='nodaemon'", etc. in "/etc/default/exim4".

For the Internet mail via smarthost, you should first read postfix documentation and key manual pages. command function postfix1 Postfix control program postconf1 Postfix configuration utility postconf5 Postfix configuration parameters postmap1 Postfix lookup table maintenance postalias1 Postfix alias database maintenance You (re)configure postfix and sasl2-bin packages as follows. $ sudo /etc/init.d/postfix stop $ sudo dpkg-reconfigure postfix Chose "Internet with smarthost". Set "SMTP relay host (blank for none):" to "[smtp.hostname.dom]:587" and configure it by the following. $ sudo postconf -e 'smtp_sender_dependent_authentication = yes' $ sudo postconf -e 'smtp_sasl_auth_enable = yes' $ sudo postconf -e 'smtp_sasl_password_maps = hash:/etc/postfix/sasl_passwd' $ sudo postconf -e 'smtp_sasl_type = cyrus' $ sudo vim /etc/postfix/sasl_passwd Create password entries for the smarthost. $ cat /etc/postfix/sasl_passwd [smtp.hostname.dom]:587 username:password $ sudo postmap hush:/etc/postfix/sasl_passwd Start the postfix by the following. $ sudo /etc/init.d/postfix start Here the use of "[" and "]" in the dpkg-reconfigure dialog and "/etc/postfix/sasl_passwd" ensures not to check MX record but directly use exact hostname specified. See "Enabling SASL authentication in the Postfix SMTP client" in "/usr/share/doc/postfix/html/SASL_README.html".

There are a few mail address configuration files for mail transport, delivery and user agents. file function application /etc/mailname default host name for (outgoing) mail Debian specific, mailname5 /etc/email-addresses host name spoofing for outgoing mail exim8 specific, exim4-config_files5 /etc/postfix/generic host name spoofing for outgoing mail postfix1 specific, activated after postmap1 command execution. /etc/aliases account name alias for incoming mail general, activated after newaliases1 command execution. The mailname in the "/etc/mailname" file is usually a fully qualified domain name (FQDN) that resolves to one of the host's IP addresses. For the mobile workstation which does not have a hostname with resolvable IP address, set this mailname to the value of "hostname -f". (This is safe choice and works for both exim4-* and postfix.) The contents of "/etc/mailname" is used by many non-MTA programs for their default behavior. For mutt, set "hostname" and "from" variables in ~/muttrc file to override the mailname value. For programs in the devscripts package, such as bts1 and dch1, export environment variables "$DEBFULLNAME" and "$DEBEMAIL" to override it. The popularity-contest package normally send mail from root account with FQDN. You need to set MAILFROM in /etc/popularity-contest.conf as described in the /usr/share/popularity-contest/default.conf file. Otherwise, your mail will be rejected by the smarthost SMTP server. Although this is tedious, this approach is safer than rewriting the source address for all mails from root by MTA and should be used for other daemons and cron scripts. When setting the mailname to "hostname -f", the spoofing of the source mail address via MTA can be realized by the following. "/etc/email-addresses" file for exim48 as explained in the exim4-config_files5 "/etc/postfix/generic" file for postfix1 as explained in the generic5 For postfix, the following extra steps are needed. # postmap hash:/etc/postfix/generic # postconf -e 'smtp_generic_maps = hash:/etc/postfix/generic' # postfix reload You can test mail address configuration using the following. exim8 with -brw, -bf, -bF, -bV, … options postmap1 with -q option. Exim comes with several utility programs such as exiqgrep8 and exipick8. See "dpkg -L exim4-base|grep man8/" for available commands.

There are several basic MTA operations. Some may be performed via sendmail1 compatibility interface. exim command postfix command description sendmail sendmail read mails from standard input and arrange for delivery (-bm) mailq mailq list the mail queue with status and queue ID (-bp) newaliases newaliases initialize alias database (-I) exim4 -q postqueue -f flush waiting mails (-q) exim4 -qf postsuper -r ALL deferred; postqueue -f flush all mails exim4 -qff postsuper -r ALL; postqueue -f flush even frozen mails exim4 -Mg queue_id postsuper -h queue_id freeze one message by its queue ID exim4 -Mrm queue_id postsuper -d queue_id remove one message by its queue ID N/A postsuper -d ALL remove all messages It may be a good idea to flush all mails by a script in "/etc/ppp/ip-up.d/*".

If you subscribe to Debian related mailing list, it may be a good idea to use such MUA as mutt and mew which are the de facto standard for the participant and known to behave as expected. package popcon size type evolution @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ X GUI program (GNOME3, groupware suite) thunderbird @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ X GUI program (GNOME2, unbranded Mozilla Thunderbird) kmail @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ X GUI program (KDE) mutt @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ character terminal program probably used with vim mew @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ character terminal program under (x)emacs

Customize "~/.muttrc" as the following to use mutt as the mail user agent (MUA) in combination with vim. # # User configuration file to override /etc/Muttrc # # spoof source mail address set use_from set hostname=example.dom set from="Name Surname <username@example.dom>" set signature="~/.signature" # vim: "gq" to reformat quotes set editor="vim -c 'set tw=72 et ft=mail'" # "mutt" goes to Inbox, while "mutt -y" lists mailboxes set mbox_type=Maildir # use qmail Maildir format for creating mbox set mbox=~/Mail # keep all mail boxes in $HOME/Mail/ set spoolfile=+Inbox # mail delivered to $HOME/Mail/Inbox set record=+Outbox # save fcc mail to $HOME/Mail/Outbox set postponed=+Postponed # keep postponed in $HOME/Mail/postponed set move=no # do not move Inbox items to mbox set quit=ask-yes # do not quit by "q" only set delete=yes # always delete w/o asking while exiting set fcc_clear # store fcc as non encrypted # Mailboxes in Maildir (automatic update) mailboxes `cd ~/Mail; /bin/ls -1|sed -e 's/^/+/' | tr "\n" " "` unmailboxes Maillog *.ev-summary ## Default #set index_format="%4C %Z %{%b %d} %-15.15L (%4l) %s" ## Thread index with senders (collapse) set index_format="%4C %Z %{%b %d} %-15.15n %?M?(#%03M)&(%4l)? %s" ## Default #set folder_format="%2C %t %N %F %2l %-8.8u %-8.8g %8s %d %f" ## just folder names set folder_format="%2C %t %N %f" Add the following to "/etc/mailcap" or "~/.mailcap" to display HTML mail and MS Word attachments inline. text/html; lynx -force_html %s; needsterminal; application/msword; /usr/bin/antiword '%s'; copiousoutput; description="Microsoft Word Text"; nametemplate=%s.doc Mutt can be used as the IMAP client and the mailbox format converter. You can tag messages with "t", "T", etc. These tagged messages can be copied with ";C" between different mailboxes and deleted with ";d" in one action.

Mutt can be configured to use multiple source email addresses with multiple corresponding smarthosts using msmtp. Msmtp is a sendmail emulator which allows to be installed along another sendmail emulator which provides the /usr/sbin/sendmail command. So you can leave your system mail to be exim4 or postfix. Let's think about supporting 3 email addresses as an example: "My Name1 <myaccount1@gmail.com>" "My Name2 <myaccount2@gmail.com>" "My Name3 <myaccount3@example.org>" Here is an example of ~/.muttrc customization supporting 3 smarthosts for 3 different source email addresses. set use_from set from="My Name3 <myaccount3@example.org>" set reverse_name alternates myaccount1@gmail\.com|myaccount1@gmail\.com|myaccount3@example\.org # ... # MACRO macro compose "1" "<edit-from>^UMy Name1 \<myaccount1@gmail.com\>\n" macro compose "2" "<edit-from>^UMy Name2 \<myaccount2@gmail.com\>\n" macro compose "3" "<edit-from>^UMy Name3 \<myaccount3@example.org\>\n" send2-hook '~f myaccount1@gmail.com' "set sendmail = '/usr/bin/msmtp --read-envelope-from'" send2-hook '~f myaccount2@gmail.com' "set sendmail = '/usr/bin/msmtp --read-envelope-from'" send2-hook '~f myaccount3@example.org' "set sendmail = '/usr/bin/msmtp --read-envelope-from'" # ... Let's install msmtp-gnome and set ~/.msmtprc as follows. defaults logfile ~/.msmtp.log domain myhostname.example.org tls on tls_starttls on tls_certcheck on tls_trust_file /etc/ssl/certs/ca-certificates.crt auth on port 587 auto_from account myaccount1@gmail.com host smtp.gmail.com from myaccount1@gmail.com user myaccount1@gmail.com account myaccount2@gmail.com host smtp.gmail.com from myaccount2@gmail.com user myaccount2@gmail.com account myaccount3@example.org host mail.example.org from myaccount3@example.org user myaccount3@example.org account default : myaccount3@example.org Then, add password data into the Gnome key ring. For example: $ secret-tool store --label=msmtp \ host smtp.gmail.com \ service smtp \ user myaccount1@gmail.com ... If you don't wish to use the Gnome key ring, you can install msmtp package instead and add an entry such as "password secret123" to each account in ~/.msmtprc. See memtp documentation for more.

Instead of running a MUA to access remote mails and to process them manually, you may wish to automate such process to have all the mails delivered to the local host. The remote mail retrieval and forward utility is the tool for you. Although fetchmail1 has been de facto standard for the remote mail retrieval on GNU/Linux, the author likes getmail1 now. If you want to reject mail before downloading to save bandwidth, mailfilter or mpop may be useful. Whichever mail retriever utilities are used, it is a good idea to configure system to deliver retrieved mails to MDA, such as maildrop, via pipe. package popcon size description fetchmail @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ mail retriever (POP3, APOP, IMAP) (old) getmail @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ mail retriever (POP3, IMAP4, and SDPS) (simple, secure, and reliable) mailfilter @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ mail retriever (POP3) with with regex filtering capability mpop @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ mail retriever (POP3) and MDA with filtering capability

getmail1 configuration is described in getmail documentation. Here is my set up to access multiple POP3 accounts as user. Create "/usr/local/bin/getmails" as the following. #!/bin/sh set -e if [ -f $HOME/.getmail/running ]; then echo "getmail is already running ... (if not, remove $HOME/.getmail/running)" >&2 pgrep -l "getmai[l]" exit 1 else echo "getmail has not been running ... " >&2 fi if [ -f $HOME/.getmail/stop ]; then echo "do not run getmail ... (if not, remove $HOME/.getmail/stop)" >&2 exit fi if [ "x$1" = "x-l" ]; then exit fi rcfiles="/usr/bin/getmail" for file in $HOME/.getmail/config/* ; do rcfiles="$rcfiles --rcfile $file" done date -u > $HOME/.getmail/running eval "$rcfiles $@" rm $HOME/.getmail/running Configure it as the following. $ sudo chmod 755 /usr/local/bin/getmails $ mkdir -m 0700 $HOME/.getmail $ mkdir -m 0700 $HOME/.getmail/config $ mkdir -m 0700 $HOME/.getmail/log Create configuration files "$HOME/.getmail/config/pop3_name" for each POP3 accounts as the following. [retriever] type = SimplePOP3SSLRetriever server = pop.example.com username = pop3_name@example.com password = <your-password> [destination] type = MDA_external path = /usr/bin/maildrop unixfrom = True [options] verbose = 0 delete = True delivered_to = False message_log = ~/.getmail/log/pop3_name.log Configure it as the following. $ chmod 0600 $HOME/.getmail/config/* Schedule "/usr/local/bin/getmails" to run every 15 minutes with cron8 by executing "sudo crontab -e -u <user_name>" and adding following to user's cron entry. 5,20,35,50 * * * * /usr/local/bin/getmails --quiet Problems of POP3 access may not come from getmail. Some popular free POP3 services may be violating the POP3 protocol and their SPAM filter may not be perfect. For example, they may delete messages just after receiving RETR command before receiving DELE command and may quarantined messages into Spam mailbox. You should minimize damages by configuring them to archive accessed messages and not to delete them. See also "Some mail was not downloaded".

fetchmail1 configuration is set by "/etc/default/fetchmail", "/etc/fetchmailrc" and "$HOME/.fetchmailrc". See its example in "/usr/share/doc/fetchmail/examples/fetchmailrc.example".

Most MTA programs, such as postfix and exim4, function as MDA (mail delivery agent). There are specialized MDA with filtering capabilities. Although procmail1 has been de facto standard for MDA with filter on GNU/Linux, author likes maildrop1 now. Whichever filtering utilities are used, it is a good idea to configure system to deliver filtered mails to a qmail-style Maildir. package popcon size description procmail @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ MDA with filter (old) mailagent @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ MDA with Perl filter maildrop @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ MDA with structured filtering language

maildrop1 configuration is described in maildropfilter documentation. Here is a configuration example for "$HOME/.mailfilter". # Local configuration MAILROOT="$HOME/Mail" # set this to /etc/mailname contents MAILHOST="example.dom" logfile $HOME/.maildroplog # rules are made to override the earlier value by the later one. # mailing list mails ? if ( /^Precedence:.*list/:h || /^Precedence:.*bulk/:h ) { # rules for mailing list mails # default mailbox for mails from mailing list MAILBOX="Inbox-list" # default mailbox for mails from debian.org if ( /^(Sender|Resent-From|Resent-Sender): .*debian.org/:h ) { MAILBOX="service.debian.org" } # default mailbox for mails from bugs.debian.org (BTS) if ( /^(Sender|Resent-From|Resent-sender): .*@bugs.debian.org/:h ) { MAILBOX="bugs.debian.org" } # mailbox for each properly maintained mailing list with "List-Id: foo" or "List-Id: ...<foo.bar>" if ( /^List-Id: ([^<]*<)?([^<>]*)>?/:h ) { MAILBOX="$MATCH2" } } else { # rules for non-mailing list mails # default incoming box MAILBOX="Inbox-unusual" # local mails if ( /Envelope-to: .*@$MAILHOST/:h ) { MAILBOX="Inbox-local" } # html mails (99% spams) if ( /DOCTYPE html/:b ||\ /^Content-Type: text\/html/ ) { MAILBOX="Inbox-html" } # blacklist rule for spams if ( /^X-Advertisement/:h ||\ /^Subject:.*BUSINESS PROPOSAL/:h ||\ /^Subject:.*URGENT.*ASISSTANCE/:h ||\ /^Subject: *I NEED YOUR ASSISTANCE/:h ) { MAILBOX="Inbox-trash" } # whitelist rule for normal mails if ( /^From: .*@debian.org/:h ||\ /^(Sender|Resent-From|Resent-Sender): .*debian.org/:h ||\ /^Subject: .*(debian|bug|PATCH)/:h ) { MAILBOX="Inbox" } # whiltelist rule for BTS related mails if ( /^Subject: .*Bug#.*/:h ||\ /^(To|Cc): .*@bugs.debian.org/:h ) { MAILBOX="bugs.debian.org" } # whitelist rule for getmails cron mails if ( /^Subject: Cron .*getmails/:h ) { MAILBOX="Inbox-getmails" } } # check existance of $MAILBOX `test -d $MAILROOT/$MAILBOX` if ( $RETURNCODE == 1 ) { # create maildir mailbox for $MAILBOX `maildirmake $MAILROOT/$MAILBOX` } # deliver to maildir $MAILBOX to "$MAILROOT/$MAILBOX/" exit Unlike procmail, maildrop does not create missing maildir directories automatically. You must create them manually using maildirmake1 in advance as in the example "$HOME/.mailfilter".

Here is a similar configuration with "$HOME/.procmailrc" for procmail1. MAILDIR=$HOME/Maildir DEFAULT=$MAILDIR/Inbox/ LOGFILE=$MAILDIR/Maillog # clearly bad looking mails: drop them into X-trash and exit :0 * 1^0 ^X-Advertisement * 1^0 ^Subject:.*BUSINESS PROPOSAL * 1^0 ^Subject:.*URGENT.*ASISSTANCE * 1^0 ^Subject: *I NEED YOUR ASSISTANCE X-trash/ # Delivering mailinglist messages :0 * 1^0 ^Precedence:.*list * 1^0 ^Precedence:.*bulk * 1^0 ^List- * 1^0 ^X-Distribution:.*bulk { :0 * 1^0 ^Return-path:.*debian-devel-admin@debian.or.jp jp-debian-devel/ :0 * ^Resent-Sender.*debian-user-request@lists.debian.org debian-user/ :0 * ^Resent-Sender.*debian-devel-request@lists.debian.org debian-devel/ :0 * ^Resent-Sender.*debian-announce-request@lists.debian.org debian-announce :0 mailing-list/ } :0 Inbox/

You need to manually deliver mails to the sorted mailboxes in your home directory from "/var/mail/<username>" if your home directory became full and procmail1 failed. After making disk space in the home directory, run the following. # /etc/init.d/${MAILDAEMON} stop # formail -s procmail </var/mail/<username> # /etc/init.d/${MAILDAEMON} start

If you are to run a private server on LAN, you may consider to run POP3 / IMAP4 server for delivering mail to LAN clients. package popcon size type description courier-pop @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ POP3 Courier mail server - POP3 server (maildir format only) cyrus-pop3d @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ POP3 Cyrus mail system (POP3 support) courier-imap @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ IMAP Courier mail server - IMAP server (maildir format only) cyrus-imapd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ IMAP Cyrus mail system (IMAP support)

In the old Unix-like system, the BSD Line printer daemon was the standard. Since the standard print out format of the free software is PostScript on the Unix like system, some filter system was used along with Ghostscript to enable printing to the non-PostScript printer. Recently, Common UNIX Printing System (CUPS) is the new de facto standard. The CUPS uses Internet Printing Protocol (IPP). The IPP is now supported by other OSs such as Windows XP and Mac OS X and has became new cross-platform de facto standard for remote printing with bi-directional communication capability. The standard printable data format for the application on the Debian system is the PostScript (PS) which is a page description language. The data in PS format is fed into the Ghostscript PostScript interpreter to produce the printable data specific to the printer. See . Thanks to the file format dependent auto-conversion feature of the CUPS system, simply feeding any data to the lpr command should generate the expected print output. (In CUPS, lpr can be enabled by installing the cups-bsd package.) The Debian system has some notable packages for the print servers and utilities. package popcon size port description lpr @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ printer (515) BSD lpr/lpd (Line printer daemon) lprng @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , , , (Enhanced) cups @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ IPP (631) Internet Printing CUPS server cups-client @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , System V printer commands for CUPS: lp1, lpstat1, lpoptions1, cancel1, lpmove8, lpinfo8, lpadmin8, … cups-bsd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , BSD printer commands for CUPS: lpr1, lpq1, lprm1, lpc8 printer-driver-gutenprint @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Not applicable printer drivers for CUPS You can configure CUPS system by pointing your web browser to "http://localhost:631/" .

The Secure SHell (SSH) is the secure way to connect over the Internet. A free version of SSH called OpenSSH is available as openssh-client and openssh-server packages in Debian. package popcon size tool description openssh-client @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ssh1 Secure shell client openssh-server @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ sshd8 Secure shell server ssh-askpass-fullscreen @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ssh-askpass-fullscreen1 asks user for a pass phrase for ssh-add (GNOME2) ssh-askpass @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ssh-askpass1 asks user for a pass phrase for ssh-add (plain X) See if your SSH is accessible from the Internet. Please use the screen1 program to enable remote shell process to survive the interrupted connection (see ).

"/etc/ssh/sshd_not_to_be_run" must not be present if one wishes to run the OpenSSH server. SSH has two authentication protocols. SSH protocol SSH method description SSH-1 "RSAAuthentication" RSA identity key based user authentication , , "RhostsAuthentication" ".rhosts" based host authentication (insecure, disabled) , , "RhostsRSAAuthentication" ".rhosts" based host authentication combined with RSA host key (disabled) , , "ChallengeResponseAuthentication" RSA challenge-response authentication , , "PasswordAuthentication" password based authentication SSH-2 "PubkeyAuthentication" public key based user authentication , , "HostbasedAuthentication" "~/.rhosts" or "/etc/hosts.equiv" based host authentication combined with public key client host authentication (disabled) , , "ChallengeResponseAuthentication" challenge-response authentication , , "PasswordAuthentication" password based authentication Be careful about these differences if you are using a non-Debian system. See "/usr/share/doc/ssh/README.Debian.gz", ssh1, sshd8, ssh-agent1, and ssh-keygen1 for details. Following are the key configuration files. configuration file description of configuration file /etc/ssh/ssh_config SSH client defaults, see ssh_config5 /etc/ssh/sshd_config SSH server defaults, see sshd_config5 ~/.ssh/authorized_keys default public SSH keys that clients use to connect to this account on this SSH server ~/.ssh/identity secret SSH-1 RSA key of the user ~/.ssh/id_rsa secret SSH-2 RSA key of the user ~/.ssh/id_dsa secret SSH-2 DSA key of the user See ssh-keygen1, ssh-add1 and ssh-agent1 for how to use public and secret SSH keys. Make sure to verify settings by testing the connection. In case of any problem, use "ssh -v". You can change the pass phrase to encrypt local secret SSH keys later with "ssh-keygen -p". You can add options to the entries in "~/.ssh/authorized_keys" to limit hosts and to run specific commands. See sshd8 for details. The following starts an ssh1 connection from a client. command description ssh username@hostname.domain.ext connect with default mode ssh -v username@hostname.domain.ext connect with default mode with debugging messages ssh -1 username@hostname.domain.ext force to connect with SSH version 1 ssh -1 -o RSAAuthentication=no -l username hostname.domain.ext force to use password with SSH version 1 ssh -o PreferredAuthentications=password -l username hostname.domain.ext force to use password with SSH version 2 If you use the same user name on the local and the remote host, you can eliminate typing "username@". Even if you use different user name on the local and the remote host, you can eliminate it using "~/.ssh/config". For Debian Salsa service with account name "foo-guest", you set "~/.ssh/config" to contain the following. Host salsa.debian.org people.debian.org User foo-guest For the user, ssh1 functions as a smarter and more secure telnet1. Unlike telnet command, ssh command does not stop on the telnet escape character (initial default CTRL-]).

To establish a pipe to connect to port 25 of remote-server from port 4025 of localhost, and to port 110 of remote-server from port 4110 of localhost through ssh, execute on the local host as the following. # ssh -q -L 4025:remote-server:25 4110:remote-server:110 username@remote-server This is a secure way to make connections to SMTP/POP3 servers over the Internet. Set the "AllowTcpForwarding" entry to "yes" in "/etc/ssh/sshd_config" of the remote host.

One can avoid having to remember passwords for remote systems by using "RSAAuthentication" (SSH-1 protocol) or "PubkeyAuthentication" (SSH-2 protocol). On the remote system, set the respective entries, "RSAAuthentication yes" or "PubkeyAuthentication yes", in "/etc/ssh/sshd_config". Generate authentication keys locally and install the public key on the remote system by the following. "RSAAuthentication": RSA key for SSH-1 (deprecated because it is superseded.) $ ssh-keygen $ cat .ssh/identity.pub | ssh user1@remote "cat - >>.ssh/authorized_keys" "PubkeyAuthentication": RSA key for SSH-2 $ ssh-keygen -t rsa $ cat .ssh/id_rsa.pub | ssh user1@remote "cat - >>.ssh/authorized_keys" "PubkeyAuthentication": DSA key for SSH-2 (deprecated because it is slow.) $ ssh-keygen -t dsa $ cat .ssh/id_dsa.pub | ssh user1@remote "cat - >>.ssh/authorized_keys" Use of DSA key for SSH-2 is deprecated because key is smaller and slow. There are no more reasons to work around RSA patent using DSA since it has been expired. DSA stands for Digital Signature Algorithm and is slow. Also see DSA-1571-1. For "HostbasedAuthentication" to work in SSH-2, you must adjust the settings of "HostbasedAuthentication" to "yes" in both "/etc/ssh/sshd_config" on the server host and "/etc/ssh/ssh_config" or "~/.ssh/config" on the client host.

There are some free SSH clients available for other platforms. environment free SSH program Windows puTTY (http://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/putty/) (GPL) Windows (cygwin) SSH in cygwin (http://www.cygwin.com/) (GPL) Macintosh Classic macSSH (http://www.macssh.com/) (GPL) Mac OS X OpenSSH; use ssh in the Terminal application (GPL)

It is safer to protect your SSH authentication secret keys with a pass phrase. If a pass phrase was not set, use "ssh-keygen -p" to set it. Place your public SSH key (e.g. "~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub") into "~/.ssh/authorized_keys" on a remote host using a password-based connection to the remote host as described above. $ ssh-agent bash $ ssh-add ~/.ssh/id_rsa Enter passphrase for /home/<username>/.ssh/id_rsa: Identity added: /home/<username>/.ssh/id_rsa (/home/<username>/.ssh/id_rsa) No remote password needed from here on for the next command. $ scp foo <username>@remote.host:foo Press ^D to terminating ssh-agent session. For the X server, the normal Debian startup script executes ssh-agent as the parent process. So you only need to execute ssh-add once. For more, read ssh-agent1 and ssh-add1.

You need to protect the process doing "shutdown -h now" (see ) from the termination of SSH using the at1 command (see ) by the following. # echo "shutdown -h now" | at now Running "shutdown -h now" in screen1 (see ) session is another way to do the same.

If you have problems, check the permissions of configuration files and run ssh with the "-v" option. Use the "-p" option if you are root and have trouble with a firewall; this avoids the use of server ports 1 — 1023. If ssh connections to a remote site suddenly stop working, it may be the result of tinkering by the sysadmin, most likely a change in "host_key" during system maintenance. After making sure this is the case and nobody is trying to fake the remote host by some clever hack, one can regain a connection by removing the "host_key" entry from "~/.ssh/known_hosts" on the local host.

Here are other network application servers. package popcon size protocol description telnetd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ TELNET TELNET server telnetd-ssl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , , , (SSL support) nfs-kernel-server @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ NFS Unix file sharing samba @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ SMB Windows file and printer sharing netatalk @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ATP Apple/Mac file and printer sharing (AppleTalk) proftpd-basic @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ FTP General file download apache2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ HTTP General web server squid @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , General web proxy server squid3 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , , , bind9 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ DNS IP address for other hosts isc-dhcp-server @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ DHCP IP address of client itself Common Internet File System Protocol (CIFS) is the same protocol as Server Message Block (SMB) and is used widely by Microsoft Windows. See for integration of server systems. The hostname resolution is usually provided by the DNS server. For the host IP address dynamically assigned by DHCP, Dynamic DNS can be set up for the hostname resolution using bind9 and isc-dhcp-server as described in the DDNS page on the Debian wiki. Use of proxy server such as squid is much more efficient for saving bandwidth than use of local mirror server with the full Debian archive contents.

Here are other network application clients. package popcon size protocol description netcat @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ TCP/IP TCP/IP swiss army knife openssl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ SSL Secure Socket Layer (SSL) binary and related cryptographic tools stunnel4 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , universal SSL Wrapper telnet @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ TELNET TELNET client telnet-ssl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , , , (SSL support) nfs-common @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ NFS Unix file sharing smbclient @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ SMB MS Windows file and printer sharing client cifs-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , mount and umount commands for remote MS Windows file ftp @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ FTP FTP client lftp @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , , , ncftp @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , full screen FTP client wget @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ HTTP and FTP web downloader curl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , , , axel @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , accelerated downloader aria2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , accelerated downloader with BitTorrent and Metalink supports bind9-host @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ DNS host1 from bind9, "Priority: standard" dnsutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , dig1 from bind, "Priority: standard" isc-dhcp-client @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ DHCP obtain IP address ldap-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ LDAP obtain data from LDAP server

The telnet program enables manual connection to the system daemons and its diagnosis. For testing plain POP3 service, try the following $ telnet mail.ispname.net pop3 For testing the TLS/SSL enabled POP3 service by some ISPs, you need TLS/SSL enabled telnet client by the telnet-ssl or openssl packages. $ telnet -z ssl pop.gmail.com 995 $ openssl s_client -connect pop.gmail.com:995 The following RFCs provide required knowledge to each system daemon. RFC description rfc1939 and rfc2449 POP3 service rfc3501 IMAP4 service rfc2821 (rfc821) SMTP service rfc2822 (rfc822) Mail file format rfc2045 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) rfc819 DNS service rfc2616 HTTP service rfc2396 URI definition The port usage is described in "/etc/services".

This chapter is getting outdated since this is based on Debian 7.0 (Wheezy) released in 2013. The X Window System on the Debian system is based on the source from X.Org.

There are a few (meta)packages provided to ease installation. (meta)package popcon size description xorg @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ X libraries, an X server, a set of fonts, and a group of basic X clients and utilities (metapackage) xserver-xorg @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ full suite of the X server and its configuration xbase-clients @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ miscellaneous assortment of X clients (metapackage) x11-common @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ filesystem infrastructure for the X Window System xorg-docs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ miscellaneous documentation for the X.Org software suite menu @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ generate the Debian menu for all menu-aware applications menu-xdg @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ convert the Debian menu structure to the freedesktop.org xdg menu structure xdg-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities to integrate desktop environment provided by the freedesktop.org task-gnome-desktop @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ standard GNOME desktop environment (metapackage) task-kde-desktop @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ core KDE desktop environment (metapackage) task-xfce-desktop @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Xfce lightweight desktop environment (metapackage) task-lxde-desktop @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ LXDE lightweight desktop environment (metapackage) fluxbox @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Fluxbox: package for highly configurable and low resource X window manager For the basics of X, refer to X7 and the LDP XWindow-User-HOWTO.

A desktop environment is usually a combination of a X window manager, a file manager, and a suite of compatible utility programs. You can setup a full desktop environment such as GNOME, KDE, Xfce, or LXDE, from the aptitude under the task menu. Task menu may be out of sync with the latest package transition state under Debian unstable/testing environment. In such situation, you need to deselect some (meta)packages listed under aptitude8 task menu to avoid package conflicts. When deselecting (meta)packages, you must select certain packages providing their dependencies manually to avoid them deleted automatically. You may alternatively setup a simple environment manually just with a X window manager such as Fluxbox. See Window Managers for X for the guide to the X window manager and the desktop environment.

Debian menu system provides a general interface for both text- and X-oriented programs with update-menus1 from the menu package. Each package installs its menu data in the "/usr/share/menu/" directory. See "/usr/share/menu/README".

Each package which is compliant to Freedesktop.org's xdg menu system installs its menu data provided by "*.desktop" under "/usr/share/applications/". Modern desktop environments which are compliant to Freedesktop.org standard use these data to generate their menu using the xdg-utils package. See "/usr/share/doc/xdg-utils/README".

In order to access the traditional Debian menu from the Freedesktop.org menu compliant window manager environment such as GNOME and KDE, you must install the menu-xdg package.

The X Window System is activated as a combination of the server and client programs. The meaning for the words server and client with respect to the words local and remote requires attention here. type description X server a program run on a local host connected to the user's display and input devices. X client a program run on a remote host that processes data and talks to the X server. application server a program run on a remote host that processes data and talks to the application clients. application client a program run on a local host connected to the user's display and input devices. Modern X servers have the MIT Shared Memory Extension and communicate with their local X clients using the local shared memory. This bypasses the network transparent Xlib interprocess communication channel and gains performance for large images.

See xorg1 for X server information.

The following (re)configures an X server. # dpkg-reconfigure --priority=low x11-common Recent Linux kernels have good graphics and input device supports with DRM, KMS, and udev. X server is rewritten to use them. So "/etc/X11/xorg.conf" is usually not present on your system. These parameters are configured by the kernel. See "fb/modedb.txt" in the Linux kernel documentation. For the large high resolution CRT monitor, it is a good idea to set the refresh rate as high as your monitor can handle (85 Hz is great, 75 Hz is OK) to reduce flicker. For the LCD monitor, slower standard refresh rate (60Hz) is usually fine due to its slow response. Be careful not to use too high refresh rate which may cause fatal hardware failure of your monitor system.

There are several ways of getting the "X server" (display side) to accept connections from an "X client" (application side). package popcon size user encryption method pertinent use xbase-clients @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ unchecked no xhost command deprecated xbase-clients @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ checked no xauth command local connection via pipe openssh-client @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ checked yes ssh -X command remote network connection gdm3 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ checked no (XDMCP) GNOME display manager local connection via pipe sddm @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ checked no (XDMCP) KDE display manager local connection via pipe xdm @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ checked no (XDMCP) X display manager local connection via pipe wdm @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ checked no (XDMCP) WindowMaker display manager local connection via pipe ldm @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ checked yes LTSP display manager remote SSH network connection (thin client) Do not use remote TCP/IP connection over unsecured network for X connection unless you have very good reason such as use of encryption. A remote TCP/IP socket connection without encryption is prone to the eavesdropping attack and is disabled by default on the Debian system. Use "ssh -X". Do not use XDMCP connection over unsecured network either. It sends data via UDP/IP without encryption and is prone to the eavesdropping attack. LTSP stands for Linux Terminal Server Project.

The X Window System is usually started as an X session which is the combination of an X server and connecting X clients. For the normal desktop system, both of them are executed on a workstation. The X session is started by one of the following. startx command started from the command line One of the X display manager daemon programs *dm started by systemd based on the dependency of "graphical.target". The start up script for the display manager daemons checks the content of the "/etc/X11/default-display-manager" file before actually executing themselves. This ensures to have only one X display manager daemon program activated. See for initial environment variables of the X display manager. Essentially, all these programs execute the "/etc/X11/Xsession" script. Then the "/etc/X11/Xsession" script performs run-parts8 like action to execute scripts in the "/etc/X11/Xsession.d/" directory. This is essentially an execution of the first program which is found in the following order by the exec builtin command. The script specified as the argument of "/etc/X11/Xsession" by the X display manager, if it is defined. The "~/.xsession" or "~/.Xsession" script, if it is defined. The "/usr/bin/x-session-manager" command, if it is defined. The "/usr/bin/x-window-manager" command, if it is defined. The "/usr/bin/x-terminal-emulator" command, if it is defined. This process is affected by the content of "/etc/X11/Xsession.options". The exact programs to which these "/usr/bin/x-*" commands point, are determined by the Debian alternatives system and changed by "update-alternatives --config x-session-manager", etc. See Xsession5 for details.

gdm31 lets you select the session type (or desktop environment: ), and language (or locale: ) of the X session from its menu. It keeps the selected default value in "~/.dmrc" as the following. [Desktop] Session=default Language=ja_JP.UTF-8

On a system where "/etc/X11/Xsession.options" contains a line "allow-user-xsession" without preceding "#" characters, any user who defines "~/.xsession" or "~/.Xsession" is able to customize the action of "/etc/X11/Xsession" by completely overriding the system code. The last command in the "~/.xsession" file should use form of "exec some-window/session-manager" to start your favorite X window/session managers. If this feature is used, the selection of the display (or login) manager (DM), session manager or window manager (WM) by the system utility is ignored.

Here are new methods to customize the X session without completely overriding the system code as above. The display manager gdm3 can select a specific session and set it as the argument of "/etc/X11/Xsession". "/etc/profile", "~/.profile", "/etc/xprofile", and "~/.xprofile" files are executed as a part of gdm3 start up process. The "~/.xsessionrc" file is executed as a part of start up process. (desktop independent) "#allow-user-xsession" in "/etc/X11/Xsession.options" does not restrict execution of the "~/.xsessionrc" file. The "~/.gnomerc" file is executed as a part of start up process. (GNOME desktop only) The selection of the display (or login) manager (DM), session manager or window manager (WM) by the system utility is respected. These configuration files should not have "exec …" nor "exit" in them.

The use of "ssh -X" enables a secure connection from a local X server to a remote application server. Set "X11Forwarding" entries to "yes" in "/etc/ssh/sshd_config" of the remote host, if you want to avoid "-X" command-line option. Start the X server on the local host. Open an xterm in the local host. Run ssh1 to establish a connection with the remote site as the following. localname @ localhost $ ssh -q -X loginname@remotehost.domain Password: Run an X application command, e.g. "gimp", on the remote site as the following. loginname @ remotehost $ gimp & This method can display the output from a remote X client as if it were locally connected through a local UNIX domain socket.

Secure X terminal via the Internet, which displays remotely run entire X desktop environment, can easily achieved by using specialized package such as ldm. Your local machine becomes a secure thin client to the remote application server connected via SSH.

Fontconfig 2.0 was created to provide a distribution independent library for configuring and customizing font access in 2002. Debian after squeeze uses Fontconfig 2.0 for its font configuration. Font supports on X Window System can be summarized as follows. Legacy X server side font support system The original core X11 font system provides backward compatibility for older version of X client applications. The original core X11 fonts are installed on the X server. Modern X client side font support system The modern X system supports all fonts listed below (, , and ) with advanced features such as anti-aliasing. Xft 2.0 connects modern X applications such as ones from GNOME, KDE, and LibreOffice with FreeType 2.0 library. FreeType 2.0 provides font rasterization library. Fontconfig provides resolution of the font specification for Xft 2.0. See fonts.conf5 for its configuration. All modern X applications using Xft 2.0 can talk to modern X server using the X Rendering Extension. The X Rendering Extension moves font access and glyph image generation from the X server to the X client. package popcon size description xfonts-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ X Window System font utility programs libxft2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Xft, a library that connects X applications with the FreeType font rasterization library libfreetype6 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ FreeType 2.0 font rasterization library fontconfig @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Fontconfig, a generic font configuration library — support binaries fontconfig-config @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Fontconfig, a generic font configuration library — configuration data You can check font configuration information by the following. "xset q" for core X11 font path "fc-match" for fontconfig font default "fc-list" for available fontconfig fonts "The Penguin and Unicode" is a good overview of modern X Window System. Other documentations at http://unifont.org/ should provide good information on Unicode fonts, Unicode-enabled software, internationalization, and Unicode usability issues on free/libre/open source (FLOSS) operating systems.

There are 2 major types of computer fonts. Bitmap fonts (good for low resolution rasterization) Outline/stroke fonts (good for high resolution rasterization) While scaling of bitmap fonts causes jugged image, scaling of outline/stroke fonts produces smooth image. Bitmap fonts on the Debian system are usually provided by compressed X11 pcf bitmap font files having their file extension ".pcf.gz". Outline fonts on the Debian system are provided by the following. PostScript Type 1 font files having their file extension ".pfb" (binary font file) and ".afm" (font metrics file). TrueType (or OpenType) font files usually having their file extension ".ttf". OpenType is intended to supersede both TrueType and PostScript Type 1. font package popcon size sans-serif font serif font monospace font source of font PostScript N/A N/A Helvetica Times Courier Adobe gsfonts @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Nimbus Sans L Nimbus Roman No9 L Nimbus Mono L URW (Adobe compatible size) gsfonts-x11 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Nimbus Sans L Nimbus Roman No9 L Nimbus Mono L X font support with PostScript Type 1 fonts. t1-cyrillic @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Free Helvetian Free Times Free Courier URW extended (Adobe compatible size) lmodern @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ LMSans* LMRoman* LMTypewriter* scalable PostScript and OpenType fonts based on Computer Modern (from TeX) font package popcon size sans-serif font serif font monospace font source of font ttf-mscorefonts-installer @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Arial Times New Roman Courier New Microsoft (Adobe compatible size) (This installs non-free data) fonts-liberation @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Liberation Sans Liberation Serif Liberation Mono Liberation Fonts project (Microsoft compatible size) fonts-freefont-ttf @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ FreeSans FreeSerif FreeMono GNU freefont (Microsoft compatible size) fonts-dejavu @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ DejaVu Sans DejaVu Serif DejaVu Sans Mono DejaVu, Bitstream Vera with Unicode coverage fonts-dejavu-core @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ DejaVu Sans DejaVu Serif DejaVu Sans Mono DejaVu, Bitstream Vera with Unicode coverage (sans, sans-bold, serif, serif-bold, mono, mono-bold) fonts-dejavu-extra @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ N/A N/A N/A DejaVu, Bitstream Vera with Unicode coverage (oblique, italic, bold-oblique, bold-italic, condensed) ttf-unifont @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ N/A N/A unifont GNU Unifont, with all printable character code in Unicode 5.1 Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP) DejaVu fonts are based on and superset of Bitstream Vera fonts.

aptitude8 helps you find additional fonts easily. The short package list under "Tasks" → "Localization" The filtered flat package list of font data with regex on debtag: "~Gmade-of::data:font" The filtered flat package list of the BDF (bitmap) font packages with regex on package name: "~nxfonts-" The filtered flat package list of the TrueType (outline) font packages with regex on package name: "~nttf-|~nfonts-" Since Free fonts are sometimes limited, installing or sharing some commercial TrueType fonts is an option for a Debian users. In order to make this process easy for the user, some convenience packages have been created. mathematica-fonts fonts-mscorefonts-installer You'll have a really good selection of TrueType fonts at the expense of contaminating your Free system with non-Free fonts.

Here are some key points focused on fonts of CJK characters. font type Japanese font name Chinese font name Korean font name sans-serif gothic, ゴチック hei, gothic dodum, gulim, gothic serif mincho, 明朝 song, ming batang Font name such as "VL PGothic" with "P" is a proportional font which corresponds to the fixed width "VL Gothic" font. For example, Shift_JIS code table comprises 7070 characters. They can be grouped as the following. JIS X 0201 single-byte characters (191 characters, a.k.a. half-width characters) JIS X 0208 double-byte characters (6879 characters, a.k.a. full-width characters) Double-byte characters occupy double width on console terminals which uses CJK fixed width fonts. In order to cope with such situation, Hanzi Bitmap Font (HBF) File with file extension ".hbf" may be deployed for fonts containing single-byte and double-byte characters. In order to save space for TrueType font files, TrueType font collection file with file extension ".ttc" may be used. In order to cover complicated code space of characters, CID keyed PostScript Type 1 font is used with CMap files starting themselves with "%!PS-Adobe-3.0 Resource-CMap". This is rarely used for normal X display but used for PDF rendering etc. (see ). The multiple glyphs are expected for some Unicode code points due to Han unification. One of the most annoying ones are "U+3001 IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA" and "U+3002 IDEOGRAPHIC FULL STOP" whose character positions differ among CJK countries. Configuring priority of Japanese centric fonts over Chinese ones using "~/.fonts.conf" should give peace of minds to Japanese.

Here is a list of basic office applications (LO is LibreOffice). package popcon package size type description libreoffice-writer @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ LO word processor libreoffice-calc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ LO spreadsheet libreoffice-impress @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ LO presentation libreoffice-base @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ LO database management libreoffice-draw @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ LO vector graphics editor (draw) libreoffice-math @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ LO mathematical equation/formula editor abiword @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNOME word processor gnumeric @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNOME spreadsheet gimp @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GTK bitmap graphics editor (paint) inkscape @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNOME vector graphics editor (draw) dia @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GTK flowchart and diagram editor planner @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNOME project management calligrawords @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ KDE word processor calligrasheets @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ KDE spreadsheet calligrastage @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ KDE presentation calligraplan @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ KDE project management kexi @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ KDE database management karbon @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ KDE vector graphics editor (draw)

Here is a list of basic utility applications which caught my eyes. package popcon package size type description evince @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNOME document(pdf) viewer okular @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ KDE document(pdf) viewer calibre @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ KDE e-book converter and library management fbreader @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GTK e-book reader evolution @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNOME Personal information Management (groupware and email) kontact @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ KDE Personal information Management (groupware and email) scribus @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ KDE desktop page layout editor glabels @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNOME label editor gnucash @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNOME personal accounting homebank @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GTK personal accounting kmymoney @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ KDE personal accounting shotwell @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GTK digital photo organizer xsane @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GTK scanner frontend The poppler-data package (previously non-free, see ) needs to be installed for evince and okular to display CJK PDF documents using Cmap data (). Installing softwares such as scribus (KDE) on GNOME desktop environment are quite acceptable since corresponding functionality is not available under GNOME desktop environment. But installing too many packages with duplicated functionalities clutter your menu.

The X selection using 3 mouse buttons is the native clipboard feature of X (see ). Shift-Insert can work as the equivalent of the middle-mouse-button click. package popcon package size type description xsel @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ X command line interface to X selections xclip @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ X command line interface to X selections The modern Desktop Environments (GNOME, KDE, …) offer different clipboard system for the cut, copy, and paste using the left mouse button and keys (CTRL-X, CRTL-C, and CTRL-V).

xmodmap1 is a utility for modifying keymaps and pointer button mappings in the X Window System. To get the keycode, run xev1 in the X and press keys. To get the meaning of keysym, look into the MACRO definition in "/usr/include/X11/keysymdef.h" file (x11proto-core-dev package). All "#define" statements in this file are named as "XK_" prepended to keysym names.

Most traditional X client programs, such as xterm1, can be started with a set of standard command line options to specify geometry, font, and display. They also use the X resource database to configure their appearance. The system-wide defaults of X resources are stored in "/etc/X11/Xresources/*" and application defaults of them are stored in "/etc/X11/app-defaults/*". Use these settings as the starting points. The "~/.Xresources" file is used to store user resource specifications. This file is automatically merged into the default X resources upon login. To make changes to these settings and make them effective immediately, merge them into the database using the following command. $ xrdb -merge ~/.Xresources See x7 and xrdb1.

Learn everything about xterm1 at http://dickey.his.com/xterm/xterm.faq.html.

Never start the X display/session manager under the root account by typing in root to the prompt of the display manager such as gdm3 because it is considered unsafe (insecure), even when you plan to perform administrative activities. The entire X architecture is considered insecure if run as root. You must always use the lowest privilege level possible, like a regular user account. Easy ways to run a particular X client, e.g. "foo" as root is to use sudo8 etc. as the following. $ sudo foo & $ sudo -s # foo & $ ssh -X root@localhost # foo & Use of ssh1 just for this purpose as above is waste of resource. In order for the X client to connect to the X server, please note the following. Values of the old user's "$XAUTHORITY" and "$DISPLAY" environment variables must be copied to the new user's ones. The file pointed by value of the "$XAUTHORITY" environment variable must be readable by the new user.

Multilingualization (M17N) or Native Language Support for an application software is done in 2 steps. Internationalization (I18N): To make a software potentially handle multiple locales. Localization (L10N): To make a software handle an specific locale. There are 17, 18, or 10 letters between "m" and "n", "i" and "n", or "l" and "n" in multilingualization, internationalization, and localization which correspond to M17N, I18N, and L10N. The modern software such as GNOME and KDE are multilingualized. They are internationalized by making them handle UTF-8 data and localized by providing their translated messages through the gettext1 infrastructure. Translated messages may be provided as separate localization packages. They can be selected simply by setting pertinent environment variables to the appropriate locale. The simplest representation of the text data is ASCII which is sufficient for English and uses less than 127 characters (representable with 7 bits). In order to support much more characters for the international support, many character encoding systems have been invented. The modern and sensible encoding system is UTF-8 which can handle practically all the characters known to the human (see ). See Introduction to i18n for details. The international hardware support is enabled with localized hardware configuration data. This chapter is getting outdated since this is based on Debian 7.0 (Wheezy) released in 2013.

The Debian system can be configured to work with many international keyboard arrangements using the keyboard-configuration and console-setup packages. # dpkg-reconfigure keyboard-configuration # dpkg-reconfigure console-setup This configures the keyboard for the Linux console and the X Window updates configuration parameters in "/etc/default/keyboard" and "/etc/default/console-setup". This also configures the Linux console font. Many non-ASCII characters including accented characters used by many European languages can be made available with dead key, AltGr key, and compose key. For Asian languages, you need more complicated input method support such as IBus discussed next.

Multilingual input to the application is processed as: Keyboard Application | ^ | | +-> Linux kernel -> Input method -> Gtk, Qt, or X Setup of multilingual input for the Debian system is simplified by using the IBus family of packages with the im-config package. The list of IBus packages are the following. package popcon size supported locale ibus @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ input method framework using dbus ibus-mozc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Japanese ibus-anthy @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , ibus-kkc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , ibus-skk @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , ibus-pinyin @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Chinese (for zh_CN) ibus-chewing @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ , , (for zh_TW) ibus-hangul @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Korean ibus-table @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ table engine for IBus ibus-table-thai @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Thai ibus-unikey @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Vietnamese ibus-m17n @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Multilingual: Indic, Arabic and others The kinput2 method and other locale dependent Asian classic input methods still exist but are not recommended for the modern UTF-8 X environment. The SCIM and uim tool chains are an slightly older approach for the international input method for the modern UTF-8 X environment.

I find the Japanese input method started under English environment ("en_US.UTF-8") very useful. Here is how I did this with IBus for GNOME3: Install the Japanese input tool package ibus-anthy with its recommended packages such as im-config. Execute "im-config" from user's shell and select "ibus" as the input method. Select "Settings" → "Keyboard" → "Input Sources" → click "+" in "Input Sources" → "Japanese" → "Japanese (anthy)" and click "Add". Select "Japanese" and click "Add" to support the Japanese layout keyboard without character conversion. (You may chose as many input sources.) Relogin to user's account. Verify setting by "im-config". Setup input source by right clicking the GUI toolbar icon. Switch among installed input sources by SUPER-SPACE. (SUPER is normally the Windows key.) Please note the following. im-config8 behaves differently if command is executed from root or not. im-config8 enables the best input method on the system as default without any user actions. The GUI menu entry for im-config8 is disabled as default to prevent cluttering.

If you wish to input without going through XIM (mechanism used by the X), set "$XMODIFIERS" value to "none" while starting a program. This may be the case if you use Japanese input infrastructure egg on emacs1 while disabling ibus. From shell, execute as the following. $ XMODIFIERS=none emacs In order to adjust the command executed by the Debian menu, place customized configuration in "/etc/menu/" following method described in "/usr/share/doc/menu/html".

Linux console can only display limited characters. (You need to use special terminal program such as jfbterm1 to display non-European languages on the non-X console.) X Window can display any characters in the UTF-8 as long as required font data exists. (The encoding of the original font data is taken care by the X Window System and transparent to the user.)

Under the East Asian locale, the box drawing, Greek, and Cyrillic characters may be displayed wider than your desired width to cause the unaligned terminal output (see Unicode Standard Annex #11). You can work around this problem: gnome-terminal: Edit → Preferences → Profiles → Edit → Compatibility → Ambiguous-wide characters → Narrow ncurses: Set environment export NCURSES_NO_UTF8_ACS=0.

The following focuses on the locale for applications run under X Window environment started from gdm31.

The environment variable "LANG=xx_YY.ZZZZ" sets the locale to language code "xx", country code "yy", and encoding "ZZZZ" (see ). The current Debian system normally sets the locale as "LANG=xx_YY.UTF-8". This uses the UTF-8 encoding with the Unicode character set. This UTF-8 encoding system is a multibyte code system and uses code points smartly. The ASCII data, which consist only with 7-bit range codes, are always valid UTF-8 data consisting only with 1 byte per character. The previous Debian system used to set the locale as "LANG=C" or "LANG=xx_YY" (without ".UTF-8"). The ASCII character set is used for "LANG=C" or "LANG=POSIX". The traditional encoding system in Unix is used for "LANG=xx_YY". Actual traditional encoding system used for "LANG=xx_YY" can be identified by checking "/usr/share/i18n/SUPPORTED". For example, "en_US" uses "ISO-8859-1" encoding and "fr_FR@euro" uses "ISO-8859-15" encoding. For meaning of encoding values, see .

Unicode character set can represent practically all characters known to human with code point range from 0 to 10FFFF in hexadecimal notation. Its storage requires at least 21 bits. Text encoding system UTF-8 fits Unicode code points into a sensible 8 bit data stream compatible with the ASCII data processing system. UTF stands for Unicode Transformation Format. I recommend to use UTF-8 locale for your desktop, e.g., "LANG=en_US.UTF-8". The first part of the locale determines messages presented by applications. For example, gedit1 (text editor for the GNOME Desktop) under "LANG=fr_FR.UTF-8" locale can display and edit Chinese character text data while presenting menus in French, as long as required fonts and input methods are installed. I also recommend to set the locale only using the "$LANG" environment variable. I do not see much benefit of setting a complicated combination of "LC_*" variables (see locale1) under UTF-8 locale. Even plain English text may contain non-ASCII characters, e.g. slightly curly left and right quotation marks are not available in ASCII. “double quoted text” is not "double quoted ASCII" ‘single quoted text’ is not 'single quoted ASCII' When ASCII plain text data is converted to UTF-8 one, it has exactly the same content and size as the original ASCII one. So you loose nothing by deploying UTF-8 locale. Some programs consume more memory after supporting I18N. This is because they are coded to use UTF-32(UCS4) internally to support Unicode for speed optimization and consume 4 bytes per each ASCII character data independent of locale selected. Again, you loose nothing by deploying UTF-8 locale. The vendor specific old non-UTF-8 encoding systems tend to have minor but annoying differences on some characters such as graphic ones for many countries. The deployment of the UTF-8 system by the modern OSs practically solved these conflicting encoding issues.

In order for the system to access a particular locale, the locale data must be compiled from the locale database. (The Debian system does not come with all available locales pre-compiled unless you installed the locales-all package.) The full list of supported locales available for compiling is available in "/usr/share/i18n/SUPPORTED". This lists all the proper locale names. The following lists all the available UTF-8 locales already compiled to the binary form. $ locale -a | grep utf8 The following command execution reconfigures the locales package. # dpkg-reconfigure locales This process involves 3 steps. Update the list of available locales Compile them into the binary form Set the system wide default locale value in "/etc/default/locale" for use by PAM (see ) The list of available locale should include "en_US.UTF-8" and all the interesting languages with "UTF-8". The recommended default locale is "en_US.UTF-8" for US English. For other languages, please make sure to chose locale with "UTF-8". Any one of these settings can handle any international characters. Although setting locale to "C" uses US English message, it handles only ASCII characters.

The value of the "$LANG" environment variable is set and changed by many applications. Set initially by the PAM mechanism of login1 for the local Linux console programs Set initially by the PAM mechanism of the display manager for all X programs Set initially by the PAM mechanism of ssh1 for the remote console programs Changed by some display manager such as gdm31 for all X programs Changed by the X session startup code via "~/.xsessionrc" for all X programs Changed by the shell startup code, e.g. "~/.bashrc", for all console programs It is a good idea to install system wide default locale as "en_US.UTF-8" for maximum compatibility.

You can chose specific locale only under X Window irrespective of your system wide default locale using PAM customization (see ) as follows. This environment should provide you with your best desktop experience with stability. You have access to the functioning character terminal with readable messages even when the X Window System is not working. This becomes essential for languages which use non-roman characters such as Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. There may be another way available as the improvement of X session manager package but please read following as the generic and basic method of setting the locale. For gdm31, I know you can select the locale of X session via its memu. The following line defines file location of the language environment in the PAM configuration file, such as "/etc/pam.d/gdm3. auth required pam_env.so read_env=1 envfile=/etc/default/locale Change this to the following. auth required pam_env.so read_env=1 envfile=/etc/default/locale-x For Japanese, create a "/etc/default/locale-x" file with "-rw-r--r-- 1 root root" permission containing the following. LANG="ja_JP.UTF-8" Keep the default "/etc/default/locale" file for other programs as the the following. LANG="en_US.UTF-8" This is the most generic technique to customize locale and makes the menu selection dialog of gdm31 itself to be localized. Alternatively for this case, you may simply change locale using the "~/.xsessionrc" file.

For cross platform data exchanges (see ), you may need to mount some filesystem with particular encodings. For example, mount8 for vfat filesystem assumes CP437 if used without option. You need to provide explicit mount option to use UTF-8 or CP932 for filenames. When auto-mounting a hot-pluggable USB memory stick under modern desktop environment such as GNOME, you may provide such mount option by right clicking the icon on the desktop, click "Drive" tab, click to expand "Setting", and entering "utf8" to "Mount options:". The next time this memory stick is mounted, mount with UTF-8 is enabled. If you are upgrading system or moving disk drives from older non-UTF-8 system, file names with non-ASCII characters may be encoded in the historic and deprecated encodings such as ISO-8859-1 or eucJP. Please seek help of text conversion tools to convert them to UTF-8. See . Samba uses Unicode for newer clients (Windows NT, 200x, XP) but uses CP850 for older clients (DOS and Windows 9x/Me) as default. This default for older clients can be changed using "dos charset" in the "/etc/samba/smb.conf" file, e.g., to CP932 for Japanese.

Translations exist for many of the text messages and documents that are displayed in the Debian system, such as error messages, standard program output, menus, and manual pages. GNU gettext(1) command tool chain is used as the backend tool for most translation activities. Under "Tasks" → "Localization" aptitude8 provides an extensive list of useful binary packages which add localized messages to applications and provide translated documentation. For example, you can obtain the localized message for manpage by installing the manpages-<LANG> package. To read the Italian-language manpage for <programname> from "/usr/share/man/it/", execute as the following. LANG=it_IT.UTF-8 man <programname>

The sort order of characters with sort1 is affected by the language choice of the locale. Spanish and English locale sort differently. The date format of ls1 is affected by the locale. The date format of "LANG=C ls -l" and "LANG=en_US.UTF-8" are different (see ). Number punctuation are different for locales. For example, in English locale, one thousand one point one is displayed as "1,000.1" while in German locale, it is displayed as "1.000,1". You may see this difference in spreadsheet program.

Here, I describe basic tips to configure and manage systems, mostly from the console.

screen1 is a very useful tool for people to access remote sites via unreliable or intermittent connections since it supports interrupted network connections. package popcon size description screen @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ terminal multiplexer with VT100/ANSI terminal emulation tmux @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ terminal multiplexer alternative (Use "Control-B" instead)

screen1 not only allows one terminal window to work with multiple processes, but also allows remote shell process to survive interrupted connections. Here is a typical use scenario of screen1. You login to a remote machine. You start screen on a single console. You execute multiple programs in screen windows created with ^A c ("Control-A" followed by "c"). You switch among the multiple screen windows by ^A n ("Control-A" followed by "n"). Suddenly you need to leave your terminal, but you don't want to lose your active work by keeping the connection. You may detach the screen session by any methods. Brutally unplug your network connection Type ^A d ("Control-A" followed by "d") and manually logging out from the remote connection Type ^A DD ("Control-A" followed by "DD") to have screen detach and log you out You log in again to the same remote machine (even from a different terminal). You start screen as "screen -r". screen magically reattaches all previous screen windows with all actively running programs. You can save connection fees with screen for metered network connections such as dial-up and packet ones, because you can leave a process active while disconnected, and then re-attach it later when you connect again.

In a screen session, all keyboard inputs are sent to your current window except for the command keystroke. All screen command keystrokes are entered by typing ^A ("Control-A") plus a single key [plus any parameters]. Here are important ones to remember. key binding meaning ^A ? show a help screen (display key bindings) ^A c create a new window and switch to it ^A n go to next window ^A p go to previous window ^A 0 go to window number 0 ^A 1 go to window number 1 ^A w show a list of windows ^A a send a Ctrl-A to current window as keyboard input ^A h write a hardcopy of current window to file ^A H begin/end logging current window to file ^A ^X lock the terminal (password protected) ^A d detach screen session from the terminal ^A DD detach screen session and log out See screen1 for details.

Many programs record their activities under the "/var/log/" directory. The system log daemon: rsyslogd8 See and .

Here are notable log analyzers ("~Gsecurity::log-analyzer" in aptitude8). package popcon size description logwatch @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ log analyzer with nice output written in Perl fail2ban @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ban IPs that cause multiple authentication errors analog @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ web server log analyzer awstats @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ powerful and featureful web server log analyzer sarg @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ squid analysis report generator pflogsumm @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Postfix log entry summarizer syslog-summary @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ summarize the contents of a syslog log file fwlogwatch @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ firewall log analyzer squidview @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ monitor and analyze squid access.log files swatch @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ log file viewer with regexp matching, highlighting, and hooks crm114 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Controllable Regex Mutilator and Spam Filter (CRM114) icmpinfo @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ interpret ICMP messages CRM114 provides language infrastructure to write fuzzy filters with the TRE regex library. Its popular use is spam mail filter but it can be used as log analyzer.

The simple use of script1 (see ) to record shell activity produces a file with control characters. This can be avoided by using col1 as the following. $ script Script started, file is typescript Do whatever … and press Ctrl-D to exit script. $ col -bx <typescript >cleanedfile $ vim cleanedfile If you don't have script (for example, during the boot process in the initramfs), you can use the following instead. $ sh -i 2>&1 | tee typescript Some x-terminal-emulator such as gnome-terminal can record. You may wish to extend line buffer for scrollback. You may use screen1 with "^A H" (see ) to perform recording of console. You may use emacs1 with "M-x shell", "M-x eshell", or "M-x term" to perform recording of console. You may later use "C-x C-w" to write the buffer to a file.

Although pager tools such as more1 and less1 (see ) and custom tools for highlighting and formatting (see ) can display text data nicely, general purpose editors (see ) are most versatile and customizable. For vim1 and its pager mode alias view1, ":set hls" enables highlighted search.

The default display format of time and date by the "ls -l" command depends on the locale (see for value). The "$LANG" variable is referred first and it can be overridden by the "$LC_TIME" variable. The actual default display format for each locale depends on the version of the standard C library (the libc6 package) used. I.e., different releases of Debian had different defaults. If you really wish to customize this display format of time and date beyond the locale, you should set the time style value by the "--time-style" argument or by the "$TIME_STYLE" value (see ls1, date1, "info coreutils 'ls invocation'"). time style value locale display of time and date iso any 01-19 00:15 long-iso any 2009-01-19 00:15 full-iso any 2009-01-19 00:15:16.000000000 +0900 locale C Jan 19 00:15 locale en_US.UTF-8 Jan 19 00:15 locale es_ES.UTF-8 ene 19 00:15 +%d.%m.%y %H:%M any 19.01.09 00:15 +%d.%b.%y %H:%M C or en_US.UTF-8 19.Jan.09 00:15 +%d.%b.%y %H:%M es_ES.UTF-8 19.ene.09 00:15 You can eliminate typing long option on commandline using command alias, e.g. "alias ls='ls --time-style=+%d.%m.%y\ %H:%M'" (see ). ISO 8601 is followed for these iso-formats.

Shell echo to most modern terminals can be colorized using ANSI escape code (see "/usr/share/doc/xterm/ctlseqs.txt.gz"). For example, try the following $ RED=$(printf "\x1b[31m") $ NORMAL=$(printf "\x1b[0m") $ REVERSE=$(printf "\x1b[7m") $ echo "${RED}RED-TEXT${NORMAL} ${REVERSE}REVERSE-TEXT${NORMAL}"

Colorized commands are handy for inspecting their output in the interactive environment. I include the following in my "~/.bashrc". if [ "$TERM" != "dumb" ]; then eval "`dircolors -b`" alias ls='ls --color=always' alias ll='ls --color=always -l' alias la='ls --color=always -A' alias less='less -R' alias ls='ls --color=always' alias grep='grep --color=always' alias egrep='egrep --color=always' alias fgrep='fgrep --color=always' alias zgrep='zgrep --color=always' else alias ll='ls -l' alias la='ls -A' fi The use of alias limits color effects to the interactive command usage. It has advantage over exporting environment variable "export GREP_OPTIONS='--color=auto'" since color can be seen under pager programs such as less1. If you wish to suppress color when piping to other programs, use "--color=auto" instead in the above example for "~/.bashrc". You can turn off these colorizing aliases in the interactive environment by invoking shell with "TERM=dumb bash".

You can record the editor activities for complex repeats. For Vim, as follows. "qa": start recording typed characters into named register "a". … editor activities "q": end recording typed characters. "@a": execute the contents of register "a". For Emacs, as follows. "C-x (": start defining a keyboard macro. … editor activities "C-x )": end defining a keyboard macro. "C-x e": execute a keyboard macro.

There are few ways to record the graphic image of an X application, including an xterm display. package popcon size command xbase-clients @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xwd1 gimp @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GUI menu imagemagick @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ import1 scrot @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ scrot1

There are specialized tools to record changes in configuration files with help of DVCS system. package popcon size description etckeeper @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ store configuration files and their metadata with Git (default), Mercurial, or Bazaar (new) changetrack @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ store configuration files with RCS (old) I recommend to use the etckeeper package with git1 which put entire "/etc" under VCS control. Its installation guide and tutorial are found in "/usr/share/doc/etckeeper/README.gz". Essentially, running "sudo etckeeper init" initializes the git repository for "/etc" just like the process explained in but with special hook scripts for more thorough setups. As you change your configuration, you can use git1 normally to record them. It automatically records changes nicely every time you run package management commands, too. You can browse the change history of "/etc" by executing "sudo GIT_DIR=/etc/.git gitk" with clear view for new installed packages, removed packages, and version changes of packages.

Program activities can be monitored and controlled using specialized tools. package popcon size description coreutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ nice1: run a program with modified scheduling priority bsdutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ renice1: modify the scheduling priority of a running process procps @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "/proc" filesystem utilities: ps1, top1, kill1, watch1, … psmisc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "/proc" filesystem utilities: killall1, fuser1, peekfd1, pstree1 time @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ time1: run a program to report system resource usages with respect to time sysstat @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ sar1, iostat1, mpstat1, …: system performance tools for Linux isag @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Interactive System Activity Grapher for sysstat lsof @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ lsof8: list files opened by a running process using "-p" option strace @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ strace1: trace system calls and signals ltrace @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ltrace1: trace library calls xtrace @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xtrace1: trace communication between X11 client and server powertop @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ powertop1: information about system power use cron @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ run processes according to a schedule in background from cron8 daemon anacron @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ cron-like command scheduler for systems that don't run 24 hours a day at @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ at1 or batch1: run a job at a specified time or below certain load level The procps packages provide very basics of monitoring, controlling, and starting program activities. You should learn all of them.

Display time used by the process invoked by the command. # time some_command >/dev/null real 0m0.035s # time on wall clock (elapsed real time) user 0m0.000s # time in user mode sys 0m0.020s # time in kernel mode

A nice value is used to control the scheduling priority for the process. nice value scheduling priority 19 lowest priority process (nice) 0 very high priority process for user -20 very high priority process for root (not-nice) # nice -19 top # very nice # nice --20 wodim -v -eject speed=2 dev=0,0 disk.img # very fast Sometimes an extreme nice value does more harm than good to the system. Use this command carefully.

The ps1 command on a Debian system support both BSD and SystemV features and helps to identify the process activity statically. style typical command feature BSD ps aux display %CPU %MEM System V ps -efH display PPID For the zombie (defunct) children process, you can kill them by the parent process ID identified in the "PPID" field. The pstree1 command display a tree of processes.

top1 on the Debian system has rich features and helps to identify what process is acting funny dynamically. It is an interactive full screen program. You can get its usage help press by pressing the "h"-key and terminate it by pressing the "q"-key.

You can list all files opened by a process with a process ID (PID), e.g. 1, by the following. $ sudo lsof -p 1 PID=1 is usually the init program.

You can trace program activity with strace1, ltrace1, or xtrace1 for system calls and signals, library calls, or communication between X11 client and server. You can trace system calls of the ls command as the following. $ sudo strace ls

You can also identify processes using files by fuser1, e.g. for "/var/log/mail.log" by the following. $ sudo fuser -v /var/log/mail.log USER PID ACCESS COMMAND /var/log/mail.log: root 2946 F.... rsyslogd You see that file "/var/log/mail.log" is open for writing by the rsyslogd8 command. You can also identify processes using sockets by fuser1, e.g. for "smtp/tcp" by the following. $ sudo fuser -v smtp/tcp USER PID ACCESS COMMAND smtp/tcp: Debian-exim 3379 F.... exim4 Now you know your system runs exim48 to handle TCP connections to SMTP port (25).

watch1 executes a program repeatedly with a constant interval while showing its output in fullscreen. $ watch w This displays who is logged on to the system updated every 2 seconds.

There are several ways to repeat a command looping over files matching some condition, e.g. matching glob pattern "*.ext". Shell for-loop method (see ): for x in *.ext; do if [ -f "$x"]; then command "$x" ; fi; done find1 and xargs1 combination: find . -type f -maxdepth 1 -name '*.ext' -print0 | xargs -0 -n 1 command find1 with "-exec" option with a command: find . -type f -maxdepth 1 -name '*.ext' -exec command '{}' \; find1 with "-exec" option with a short shell script: find . -type f -maxdepth 1 -name '*.ext' -exec sh -c "command '{}' && echo 'successful'" \; The above examples are written to ensure proper handling of funny file names such as ones containing spaces. See for more advance uses of find1.

For the command-line interface (CLI), the first program with the matching name found in the directories specified in the $PATH environment variable is executed. See . For the graphical user interface (GUI) compliant to the freedesktop.org standards, the *.desktop files in the /usr/share/applications/ directory provide necessary attributes for the GUI menu display of each program. See . For example, the chromium.desktop file defines attributes for the "Chromium Web Browser" such as "Name" for the program name, "Exec" for the program execution path and arguments, "Icon" for the icon used, etc. (see the Desktop Entry Specification) as follows: [Desktop Entry] Version=1.0 Name=Chromium Web Browser GenericName=Web Browser Comment=Access the Internet Comment[fr]=Explorer le Web Exec=/usr/bin/chromium %U Terminal=false X-MultipleArgs=false Type=Application Icon=chromium Categories=Network;WebBrowser; MimeType=text/html;text/xml;application/xhtml_xml;x-scheme-handler/http;x-scheme-handler/https; StartupWMClass=Chromium StartupNotify=true This is an oversimplified description. The *.desktop files are scanned as follows. The desktop environment sets $XDG_DATA_HOME and $XDG_DATA_DIR environment variables. For example, under the GNOME 3: $XDG_DATA_HOME is unset. (The default value of $HOME/.local/share is used.) $XDG_DATA_DIRS is set to /usr/share/gnome:/usr/local/share/:/usr/share/. So the base directories (see XDG Base Directory Specification) and the applications directories are as follows. $HOME/.local/share/ → $HOME/.local/share/applications/ /usr/share/gnome/ → /usr/share/gnome/applications/ /usr/local/share/ → /usr/local/share/applications/ /usr/share/ → /usr/share/applications/ The *.desktop files are scanned in these applications directories in this order. A user custom GUI menu entry can be created by adding a *.desktop file in the $HOME/.local/share/applications/ directory. Similarly, if a *.desktop file is created in the autostart directory under these base directories, the specified program in the *.desktop file is executed automatically when the desktop environment is started. See Desktop Application Autostart Specification. Similarly, if a *.desktop file is created in the $HOME/Desktop directory and the Desktop environment is configured to support the desktop icon launcher feature, the specified program in it is executed upon clicking the icon. Please note that the actual name of the $HOME/Desktop directory is locale dependent. See xdg-user-dirs-update1.

Some programs start another program automatically. Here are check points for customizing this process. Application configuration menu: GNOME3 desktop: "Settings" → "System" → "Details" → "Default Applications" KDE desktop: "K" → "Control Center" → "KDE Components" → "Component Chooser" Iceweasel browser: "Edit" → "Preferences" → "Applications" mc1: "/etc/mc/mc.ext" Environment variables such as "$BROWSER", "$EDITOR", "$VISUAL", and "$PAGER" (see eviron7) The update-alternatives1 system for programs such as "editor", "view", "x-www-browser", "gnome-www-browser", and "www-browser" (see ) the "~/.mailcap" and "/etc/mailcap" file contents which associate MIME type with program (see mailcap5) The "~/.mime.types" and "/etc/mime.types" file contents which associate file name extension with MIME type (see run-mailcap1) update-mime8 updates the "/etc/mailcap" file using "/etc/mailcap.order" file (see mailcap.order5). The debianutils package provides sensible-browser1, sensible-editor1, and sensible-pager1 which make sensible decisions on which editor, pager, and web browser to call, respectively. I recommend you to read these shell scripts. In order to run a console application such as mutt under X as your preferred application, you should create an X application as following and set "/usr/local/bin/mutt-term" as your preferred application to be started as described. # cat /usr/local/bin/mutt-term <<EOF #!/bin/sh gnome-terminal -e "mutt \$@" EOF chmod 755 /usr/local/bin/mutt-term

Use kill1 to kill (or send a signal to) a process by the process ID. Use killall1 or pkill1 to do the same by the process command name and other attributes. signal value signal name function 1 HUP restart daemon 15 TERM normal kill 9 KILL kill hard

Run the at1 command to schedule a one-time job by the following. $ echo 'command -args'| at 3:40 monday

Use cron8 to schedule tasks regularly. See crontab1 and crontab5. You can schedule to run processes as a normal user, e.g. foo by creating a crontab5 file as "/var/spool/cron/crontabs/foo" with "crontab -e" command. Here is an example of a crontab5 file. # use /bin/sh to run commands, no matter what /etc/passwd says SHELL=/bin/sh # mail any output to paul, no matter whose crontab this is MAILTO=paul # Min Hour DayOfMonth Month DayOfWeek command (Day... are OR'ed) # run at 00:05, every day 5 0 * * * $HOME/bin/daily.job >> $HOME/tmp/out 2>&1 # run at 14:15 on the first of every month -- output mailed to paul 15 14 1 * * $HOME/bin/monthly # run at 22:00 on weekdays(1-5), annoy Joe. % for newline, last % for cc: 0 22 * * 1-5 mail -s "It's 10pm" joe%Joe,%%Where are your kids?%.%% 23 */2 1 2 * echo "run 23 minutes after 0am, 2am, 4am ..., on Feb 1" 5 4 * * sun echo "run at 04:05 every Sunday" # run at 03:40 on the first Monday of each month 40 3 1-7 * * [ "$(date +%a)" == "Mon" ] && command -args For the system not running continuously, install the anacron package to schedule periodic commands at the specified intervals as closely as machine-uptime permits. See anacron8 and anacrontab5. For scheduled system maintenance scripts, you can run them periodically from root account by placing such scripts in "/etc/cron.hourly/", "/etc/cron.daily/", "/etc/cron.weekly/", or "/etc/cron.monthly/". Execution timings of these scripts can be customized by "/etc/crontab" and "/etc/anacrontab".

Insurance against system malfunction is provided by the kernel compile option "Magic SysRq key" (SAK key) which is now the default for the Debian kernel. Pressing Alt-SysRq followed by one of the following keys does the magic of rescuing control of the system. key following Alt-SysRq description of action r restore the keyboard from raw mode after X crashes 0 change the console loglevel to 0 to reduce error messages k kill all processes on the current virtual console e send a SIGTERM to all processes, except for init8 i send a SIGKILL to all processes, except for init8 s sync all mounted filesystems to avoid data corruption u remount all mounted filesystems read-only (umount) b reboot the system without syncing or unmounting Read the signal7, kill1, and sync1 manpages to understand the description above. The combination of "Alt-SysRq s", "Alt-SysRq u", and "Alt-SysRq r" is good for getting out of really bad situations and gaining usable keyboard access without stopping the system. See "/usr/share/doc/linux-doc-3.*/Documentation/sysrq.txt.gz". The Alt-SysRq feature may be considered a security risk by allowing users access to root-privileged functions. Placing "echo 0 >/proc/sys/kernel/sysrq" in "/etc/rc.local" or "kernel.sysrq = 0" in "/etc/sysctl.conf" disables the Alt-SysRq feature. From SSH terminal etc., you can use the Alt-SysRq feature by writing to the "/proc/sysrq-trigger". For example, "echo s > /proc/sysrq-trigger; echo u > /proc/sysrq-trigger" from the root shell prompt syncs and umounts all mounted filesystems.

You can check who is on the system by the following. who1 shows who is logged on. w1 shows who is logged on and what they are doing. last1 shows listing of last logged in user. lastb1 shows listing of last bad logged in users. "/var/run/utmp", and "/var/log/wtmp" hold such user information. See login1 and utmp5.

You can send message to everyone who is logged on to the system with wall1 by the following. $ echo "We are shutting down in 1 hour" | wall

For the PCI-like devices (AGP, PCI-Express, CardBus, ExpressCard, etc.), lspci8 (probably with "-nn" option) is a good start for the hardware identification. Alternatively, you can identify the hardware by reading contents of "/proc/bus/pci/devices" or browsing directory tree under "/sys/bus/pci" (see ). package popcon size description pciutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Linux PCI Utilities: lspci8 usbutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Linux USB utilities: lsusb8 pcmciautils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ PCMCIA utilities for Linux: pccardctl8 scsitools @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ collection of tools for SCSI hardware management: lsscsi8 procinfo @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ system information obtained from "/proc": lsdev8 lshw @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ information about hardware configuration: lshw1 discover @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ hardware identification system: discover8

Although most of the hardware configuration on modern GUI desktop systems such as GNOME and KDE can be managed through accompanying GUI configuration tools, it is a good idea to know some basics methods to configure them. package popcon size description console-setup @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Linux console font and keytable utilities x11-xserver-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ X server utilities: xset1, xmodmap1 acpid @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ daemon to manage events delivered by the Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) acpi @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utility to display information on ACPI devices sleepd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ daemon to put a laptop to sleep during inactivity hdparm @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ hard disk access optimization (see ) smartmontools @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ control and monitor storage systems using S.M.A.R.T. setserial @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ collection of tools for serial port management memtest86+ @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ collection of tools for memory hardware management scsitools @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ collection of tools for SCSI hardware management setcd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ compact disc drive access optimization big-cursor @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ larger mouse cursors for X Here, ACPI is a newer framework for the power management system than APM. CPU frequency scaling on modern system is governed by kernel modules such as acpi_cpufreq.

The following sets system and hardware time to MM/DD hh:mm, CCYY. # date MMDDhhmmCCYY # hwclock --utc --systohc # hwclock --show Times are normally displayed in the local time on the Debian system but the hardware and system time usually use UTC(GMT). If the hardware (BIOS) time is set to UTC, change the setting to "UTC=yes" in the "/etc/default/rcS". The following reconfigure the timezone used by the Debian system. # dpkg-reconfigure tzdata If you wish to update system time via network, consider to use the NTP service with the packages such as ntp, ntpdate, and chrony. Under systemd, use systemd-timesyncd for the network time synchronization instead. See systemd-timesyncd8. See the following. Managing Accurate Date and Time HOWTO NTP Public Services Project The ntp-doc package ntptrace8 in the ntp package can trace a chain of NTP servers back to the primary source.

There are several components to configure character console and ncurses3 system features. The "/etc/terminfo/*/*" file (terminfo5) The "$TERM" environment variable (term7) setterm1, stty1, tic1, and toe1 If the terminfo entry for xterm doesn't work with a non-Debian xterm, change your terminal type, "$TERM", from "xterm" to one of the feature-limited versions such as "xterm-r6" when you log in to a Debian system remotely. See "/usr/share/doc/libncurses5/FAQ" for more. "dumb" is the lowest common denominator for "$TERM".

Device drivers for sound cards for current Linux are provided by Advanced Linux Sound Architecture (ALSA). ALSA provides emulation mode for previous Open Sound System (OSS) for compatibility. Use "cat /dev/urandom > /dev/audio" or speaker-test1 to test speaker (^C to stop). If you can not get sound, your speaker may be connected to a muted output. Modern sound system has many outputs. alsamixer1 in the alsa-utils package is useful to configure volume and mute settings. Application softwares may be configured not only to access sound devices directly but also to access them via some standardized sound server system. package popcon size description alsa-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for configuring and using ALSA oss-compat @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ OSS compatibility under ALSA preventing "/dev/dsp not found" errors jackd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ JACK Audio Connection Kit. (JACK) server (low latency) libjack0 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ JACK Audio Connection Kit. (JACK) library (low latency) nas @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Network Audio System (NAS) server libaudio2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Network Audio System (NAS) library pulseaudio @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ PulseAudio server, replacement for ESD libpulse0 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ PulseAudio client library, replacement for ESD libgstreamer1.0-0 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GStreamer: GNOME sound engine libphonon4 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Phonon: KDE sound engine There is usually a common sound engine for each popular desktop environment. Each sound engine used by the application can choose to connect to different sound servers.

For disabling the screen saver, use following commands. environment command The Linux console setterm -powersave off The X Window (turning off screensaver) xset s off The X Window (disabling dpms) xset -dpms The X Window (GUI configuration of screen saver) xscreensaver-command -prefs

One can always unplug the PC speaker to disable beep sounds. Removing pcspkr kernel module does this for you. The following prevents the readline3 program used by bash1 to beep when encountering an alert character (ASCII=7). $ echo "set bell-style none">> ~/.inputrc

There are 2 resources available for you to get the memory usage situation. The kernel boot message in the "/var/log/dmesg" contains the total exact size of available memory. free1 and top1 display information on memory resources on the running system. Here is an example. # grep '\] Memory' /var/log/dmesg [ 0.004000] Memory: 990528k/1016784k available (1975k kernel code, 25868k reserved, 931k data, 296k init) $ free -k total used free shared buffers cached Mem: 997184 976928 20256 0 129592 171932 -/+ buffers/cache: 675404 321780 Swap: 4545576 4 4545572 You may be wondering "dmesg tells me a free of 990 MB, and free -k says 320 MB is free. More than 600 MB missing …". Do not worry about the large size of "used" and the small size of "free" in the "Mem:" line, but read the one under them (675404 and 321780 in the example above) and relax. For my MacBook with 1GB=1048576k DRAM (video system steals some of this), I see the following. report size Total size in dmesg 1016784k = 1GB - 31792k Free in dmesg 990528k Total under shell 997184k Free under shell 20256k (but effectively 321780k)

Poor system maintenance may expose your system to external exploitation. For system security and integrity check, you should start with the following. The debsums package, see debsums1 and . The chkrootkit package, see chkrootkit1. The clamav package family, see clamscan1 and freshclam1. Debian security FAQ. Securing Debian Manual. package popcon size description logcheck @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ daemon to mail anomalies in the system logfiles to the administrator debsums @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utility to verify installed package files against MD5 checksums chkrootkit @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ rootkit detector clamav @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ anti-virus utility for Unix - command-line interface tiger @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ report system security vulnerabilities tripwire @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ file and directory integrity checker john @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ active password cracking tool aide @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Advanced Intrusion Detection Environment - static binary integrit @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ file integrity verification program crack @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ password guessing program Here is a simple script to check for typical world writable incorrect file permissions. # find / -perm 777 -a \! -type s -a \! -type l -a \! \( -type d -a -perm 1777 \) Since the debsums package uses MD5 checksums stored locally, it can not be fully trusted as the system security audit tool against malicious attacks.

Booting your system with Linux live CDs or debian-installer CDs in rescue mode makes it easy for you to reconfigure data storage on your boot device.

The disk space usage can be evaluated by programs provided by the mount, coreutils, and xdu packages: mount8 reports all mounted filesystems (= disks). df1 reports the disk space usage for the file system. du1 reports the disk space usage for the directory tree. You can feed the output of du8 to xdu1x to produce its graphical and interactive presentation with "du -k . |xdu", "sudo du -k -x / |xdu", etc.

For disk partition configuration, although fdisk8 has been considered standard, parted8 deserves some attention. "Disk partitioning data", "partition table", "partition map", and "disk label" are all synonyms. Most PCs use the classic Master Boot Record (MBR) scheme to hold disk partitioning data in the first sector, i.e., LBA sector 0 (512 bytes). Some new PCs with Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI), including Intel-based Macs, use GUID Partition Table (GPT) scheme to hold disk partitioning data not in the first sector. Although fdisk8 has been standard for the disk partitioning tool, parted8 is replacing it. package popcon size GPT description util-linux @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Not supported miscellaneous system utilities including fdisk8 and cfdisk8 parted @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Supported GNU Parted disk partition resizing program gparted @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Supported GNOME partition editor based on libparted gdisk @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Supported partition editor for the GPT disk kpartx @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Supported program to create device mappings for partitions Although parted8 claims to create and to resize filesystem too, it is safer to do such things using best maintained specialized tools such as mkfs8 (mkfs.msdos8, mkfs.ext28, mkfs.ext38, mkfs.ext48, …) and resize2fs8. In order to switch between GPT and MBR, you need to erase first few blocks of disk contents directly (see ) and use "parted /dev/sdx mklabel gpt" or "parted /dev/sdx mklabel msdos" to set it. Please note "msdos" is use here for MBR.

Although reconfiguration of your partition or activation order of removable storage media may yield different names for partitions, you can access them consistently. This is also helpful if you have multiple disks and your BIOS doesn't give them consistent device names. mount8 with "-U" option can mount a block device using UUID, instead of using its file name such as "/dev/sda3". "/etc/fstab" (see fstab5) can use UUID. Boot loaders () may use UUID too. You can probe UUID of a block special device with blkid8. Device nodes of devices such as removable storage media can be made static by using udev rules, if needed. See .

LVM2 is a logical volume manager for the Linux kernel. With LVM2, disk partitions can be created on logical volumes instead of the physical harddisks. LVM requires the following. device-mapper support in the Linux kernel (default for Debian kernels) the userspace device-mapper support library (libdevmapper* package) the userspace LVM2 tools (lvm2 package) Please start learning LVM2 from the following manpages. lvm8: Basics of LVM2 mechanism (list of all LVM2 commands) lvm.conf5: Configuration file for LVM2 lvs8: Report information about logical volumes vgs8: Report information about volume groups pvs8: Report information about physical volumes

For ext4 filesystem, the e2fsprogs package provides the following. mkfs.ext48 to create new ext4 filesystem fsck.ext48 to check and to repair existing ext4 filesystem tune2fs8 to configure superblock of ext4 filesystem debugfs8 to debug ext4 filesystem interactively. (It has undel command to recover deleted files.) The mkfs8 and fsck8 commands are provided by the e2fsprogs package as front-ends to various filesystem dependent programs (mkfs.fstype and fsck.fstype). For ext4 filesystem, they are mkfs.ext48 and fsck.ext48 (they are symlinked to mke2fs8 and e2fsck8). Similar commands are available for each filesystem supported by Linux. package popcon size description e2fsprogs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for the ext2/ext3/ext4 filesystems reiserfsprogs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for the Reiserfs filesystem dosfstools @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for the FAT filesystem. (Microsoft: MS-DOS, Windows) xfsprogs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for the XFS filesystem. (SGI: IRIX) ntfs-3g @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for the NTFS filesystem. (Microsoft: Windows NT, …) jfsutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for the JFS filesystem. (IBM: AIX, OS/2) reiser4progs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for the Reiser4 filesystem hfsprogs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for HFS and HFS Plus filesystem. (Apple: Mac OS) btrfs-progs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for the Btrfs filesystem zerofree @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ program to zero free blocks from ext2/3/4 filesystems Ext4 filesystem is the default filesystem for the Linux system and strongly recommended to use it unless you have some specific reasons not to. Btrfs filesystem is available in Linux kernel 3.2 (Debian wheezy). It is expected to be the next default filesystem after the ext4 filesystem. You should not use the Btrfs filesystem for your critical data yet before it acquires the live kernel space fsck8 feature and the boot loader support. Some tools allow access to filesystem without Linux kernel support (see ).

The mkfs8 command creates the filesystem on a Linux system. The fsck8 command provides the filesystem integrity check and repair on a Linux system. Debian now defaults to no periodic fsck after filesystem creation. It is generally not safe to run fsck on mounted filesystems. You can run the fsck8 command safely on all filesystems including root filesystem on reboot by setting "enable_periodic_fsck" in "/etc/mke2fs.conf" and the max mount count to 0 using "tune2fs -c0 /dev/<partition_name>". See mke2fs.conf5 and tune2fs8. Check files in "/var/log/fsck/" for the result of the fsck8 command run from the boot script.

The basic static filesystem configuration is given by "/etc/fstab". For example, # <file system> <mount point> <type> <options> <dump> <pass> proc /proc proc defaults 0 0 UUID=709cbe4c-80c1-56db-8ab1-dbce3146d2f7 / ext4 noatime,errors=remount-ro 0 1 UUID=817bae6b-45d2-5aca-4d2a-1267ab46ac23 none swap sw 0 0 /dev/scd0 /media/cdrom0 udf,iso9660 user,noauto 0 0 UUID (see ) may be used to identify a block device instead of normal block device names such as "/dev/sda1", "/dev/sda2", … Performance and characteristics of a filesystem can be optimized by mount options used on it (see fstab5 and mount8). Notable ones are the following. "defaults" option implies default options: "rw,suid,dev,exec,auto,nouser,async". (general) "noatime" or "relatime" option is very effective for speeding up the read access. (general) "user" option allows an ordinary user to mount the filesystem. This option implies "noexec,nosuid,nodev" option combination. (general, used for CDs or usb storage devices) "noexec,nodev,nosuid" option combination is used to enhance security. (general) "noauto" option limits mounting by explicit operation only. (general) "data=journal" option for ext3fs can enhance data integrity against power failure with some loss of write speed. You need to provide kernel boot parameter (see ), e.g. "rootflags=data=journal" to deploy a non-default journaling mode for the root filesystem. For lenny, the default jounaling mode is "rootflags=data=ordered". For squeeze, it is "rootflags=data=writeback".

Characteristics of a filesystem can be optimized via its superblock using the tune2fs8 command. Execution of "sudo tune2fs -l /dev/hda1" displays the contents of the filesystem superblock on "/dev/hda1". Execution of "sudo tune2fs -c 50 /dev/hda1" changes frequency of filesystem checks (fsck execution during boot-up) to every 50 boots on "/dev/hda1". Execution of "sudo tune2fs -j /dev/hda1" adds journaling capability to the filesystem, i.e. filesystem conversion from ext2 to ext3 on "/dev/hda1". (Do this on the unmounted filesystem.) Execution of "sudo tune2fs -O extents,uninit_bg,dir_index /dev/hda1 && fsck -pf /dev/hda1" converts it from ext3 to ext4 on "/dev/hda1". (Do this on the unmounted filesystem.) Despite its name, tune2fs8 works not only on the ext2 filesystem but also on the ext3 and ext4 filesystems.

Please check your hardware and read manpage of hdparam8 before playing with hard disk configuration because this may be quite dangerous for the data integrity. You can test disk access speed of a hard disk, e.g. "/dev/hda", by "hdparm -tT /dev/hda". For some hard disk connected with (E)IDE, you can speed it up with "hdparm -q -c3 -d1 -u1 -m16 /dev/hda" by enabling the "(E)IDE 32-bit I/O support", enabling the "using_dma flag", setting "interrupt-unmask flag", and setting the "multiple 16 sector I/O" (dangerous!). You can test write cache feature of a hard disk, e.g. "/dev/sda", by "hdparm -W /dev/sda". You can disable its write cache feature with "hdparm -W 0 /dev/sda". You may be able to read badly pressed CDROMs on modern high speed CD-ROM drive by slowing it down with "setcd -x 2".

Performance and disk wear of the solid state drive (SSD) can be optimized as follows. Use the latest Linux kernel. (>= 3.2) Reduce disk writes for read disk accesses. Set "noatime" or "relatime" mount option in /etc/fstab. Enable the TRIM command. Set "discard" mount option in /etc/fstab for the ext4 filesystem, swap partition, Btrfs, etc. See fstab5. Set "discard" option in /etc/lvm/lvm.conf for LVM. See lvm.conf5. Set "discard" option in /etc/crypttab for dm-crypt. See crypttab5. Enable the SSD optimized disk space allocation scheme. Set "ssd" mount option in /etc/fstab for the Btrfs. Make system flush data to the disk every 10 minutes for laptop PCs. Set "commit=600" mount option in /etc/fstab. See fstab5. Set pm-utils to use laptop-mode even under AC operation. See Debian BTS #659260. Changing flushing interval from normal 5 seconds to 10 minutes makes your data vulnerable to the power failure.

You can monitor and log your hard disk which is compliant to SMART with the smartd8 daemon. Enable SMART feature in BIOS. Install the smartmontools package. Identify your hard disk drives by listing them with df1. Let's assume a hard disk drive to be monitored as "/dev/hda". Check the output of "smartctl -a /dev/hda" to see if SMART feature is actually enabled. If not, enable it by "smartctl -s on -a /dev/hda". Enable smartd8 daemon to run by the following. uncomment "start_smartd=yes" in the "/etc/default/smartmontools" file. restart the smartd8 daemon by "sudo /etc/init.d/smartmontools restart". The smartd8 daemon can be customized with the /etc/smartd.conf file including how to be notified of warnings.

Applications create temporary files normally under the temporary storage directory "/tmp". If "/tmp" does not provide enough space, you can specify such temporary storage directory via the $TMPDIR variable for well-behaving programs.

For partitions created on Logical Volume Manager (LVM) (Linux feature) at install time, they can be resized easily by concatenating extents onto them or truncating extents from them over multiple storage devices without major system reconfiguration.

If you have an empty partition (e.g., "/dev/sdx"), you can format it with mkfs.ext41 and mount8 it to a directory where you need more space. (You need to copy original data contents.) $ sudo mv work-dir old-dir $ sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/sdx $ sudo mount -t ext4 /dev/sdx work-dir $ sudo cp -a old-dir/* work-dir $ sudo rm -rf old-dir You may alternatively mount an empty disk image file (see ) as a loop device (see ). The actual disk usage grows with the actual data stored.

If you have an empty directory (e.g., "/path/to/emp-dir") on another partition with usable space, you can mount(8) it with "--bind" option to a directory (e.g., "work-dir") where you need more space. $ sudo mount --bind /path/to/emp-dir work-dir

If you have usable space in another partition (e.g., "/path/to/empty" and "/path/to/work"), you can create a directory in it and stack that on to an old directory (e.g., "/path/to/old") where you need space using the OverlayFS for Linux kernel 3.18 or newer (Debian Stretch 9.0 or newer). $ sudo mount -t overlay overlay \ -olowerdir=/path/to/old-dir,upperdir=/path/to/empty,workdir=/path/to/work Here, "/path/to/empty" and "/path/to/work" should be on the RW-enabled partition to write on "/path/to/old".

This is a deprecated method. Some software may not function well with "symlink to a directory". Instead, use the "mounting" approaches described in the above. If you have an empty directory (e.g., "/path/to/emp-dir") in another partition with usable space, you can create a symlink to the directory with ln8. $ sudo mv work-dir old-dir $ sudo mkdir -p /path/to/emp-dir $ sudo ln -sf /path/to/emp-dir work-dir $ sudo cp -a old-dir/* work-dir $ sudo rm -rf old-dir Do not use "symlink to a directory" for directories managed by the system such as "/opt". Such a symlink may be overwritten when the system is upgraded.

Here, we discuss manipulations of the disk image.

The disk image file, "disk.img", of an unmounted device, e.g., the second SCSI or serial ATA drive "/dev/sdb", can be made using cp1 or dd1 by the following. # cp /dev/sdb disk.img # dd if=/dev/sdb of=disk.img The disk image of the traditional PC's master boot record (MBR) (see ) which reside on the first sector on the primary IDE disk can be made by using dd1 by the following. # dd if=/dev/hda of=mbr.img bs=512 count=1 # dd if=/dev/hda of=mbr-nopart.img bs=446 count=1 # dd if=/dev/hda of=mbr-part.img skip=446 bs=1 count=66 "mbr.img": The MBR with the partition table "mbr-nopart.img": The MBR without the partition table "mbr-part.img": The partition table of the MBR only If you have an SCSI or serial ATA device as the boot disk, substitute "/dev/hda" with "/dev/sda". If you are making an image of a disk partition of the original disk, substitute "/dev/hda" with "/dev/hda1" etc.

The disk image file, "disk.img" can be written to an unmounted device, e.g., the second SCSI drive "/dev/sdb" with matching size, by the following. # dd if=disk.img of=/dev/sdb Similarly, the disk partition image file, "partition.img" can be written to an unmounted partition, e.g., the first partition of the second SCSI drive "/dev/sdb1" with matching size, by the following. # dd if=partition.img of=/dev/sdb1

The disk image "partition.img" containing a single partition image can be mounted and unmounted by using the loop device as follows. # losetup -v -f partition.img Loop device is /dev/loop0 # mkdir -p /mnt/loop0 # mount -t auto /dev/loop0 /mnt/loop0 ...hack...hack...hack # umount /dev/loop0 # losetup -d /dev/loop0 This can be simplified as follows. # mkdir -p /mnt/loop0 # mount -t auto -o loop partition.img /mnt/loop0 ...hack...hack...hack # umount partition.img Each partition of the disk image "disk.img" containing multiple partitions can be mounted by using the loop device. Since the loop device does not manage partitions by default, we need to reset it as follows. # modinfo -p loop # verify kernel capability max_part:Maximum number of partitions per loop device max_loop:Maximum number of loop devices # losetup -a # verify nothing using the loop device # rmmod loop # modprobe loop max_part=16 Now, the loop device can manage up to 16 partitions. # losetup -v -f disk.img Loop device is /dev/loop0 # fdisk -l /dev/loop0 Disk /dev/loop0: 5368 MB, 5368709120 bytes 255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 652 cylinders Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes Disk identifier: 0x452b6464 Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System /dev/loop0p1 1 600 4819468+ 83 Linux /dev/loop0p2 601 652 417690 83 Linux # mkdir -p /mnt/loop0p1 # mount -t ext4 /dev/loop0p1 /mnt/loop0p1 # mkdir -p /mnt/loop0p2 # mount -t ext4 /dev/loop0p2 /mnt/loop0p2 ...hack...hack...hack # umount /dev/loop0p1 # umount /dev/loop0p2 # losetup -d /dev/loop0 Alternatively, similar effects can be done by using the device mapper devices created by kpartx8 from the kpartx package as follows. # kpartx -a -v disk.img ... # mkdir -p /mnt/loop0p2 # mount -t ext4 /dev/mapper/loop0p2 /mnt/loop0p2 ... ...hack...hack...hack # umount /dev/mapper/loop0p2 ... # kpartx -d /mnt/loop0 You can mount a single partition of such disk image with loop device using offset to skip MBR etc., too. But this is more error prone.

A disk image file, "disk.img" can be cleaned of all removed files into clean sparse image "new.img" by the following. # mkdir old; mkdir new # mount -t auto -o loop disk.img old # dd bs=1 count=0 if=/dev/zero of=new.img seek=5G # mount -t auto -o loop new.img new # cd old # cp -a --sparse=always ./ ../new/ # cd .. # umount new.img # umount disk.img If "disk.img" is in ext2, ext3 or ext4, you can also use zerofree8 from the zerofree package as follows. # losetup -f -v disk.img Loop device is /dev/loop3 # zerofree /dev/loop3 # cp --sparse=always disk.img new.img

The empty disk image "disk.img" which can grow up to 5GiB can be made using dd1 as follows. $ dd bs=1 count=0 if=/dev/zero of=disk.img seek=5G You can create an ext4 filesystem on this disk image "disk.img" using the loop device as follows. # losetup -f -v disk.img Loop device is /dev/loop1 # mkfs.ext4 /dev/loop1 ...hack...hack...hack # losetup -d /dev/loop1 $ du --apparent-size -h disk.img 5.0G disk.img $ du -h disk.img 83M disk.img For "disk.img", its file size is 5.0 GiB and its actual disk usage is mere 83MiB. This discrepancy is possible since ext4 can hold sparse file. The actual disk usage of sparse file grows with data which are written to it. Using similar operation on devices created by the loop device or the device mapper devices as , you can partition this disk image "disk.img" using parted8 or fdisk8, and can create filesystem on it using mkfs.ext48, mkswap8, etc.

The ISO9660 image file, "cd.iso", from the source directory tree at "source_directory" can be made using genisoimage1 provided by cdrkit by the following. # genisoimage -r -J -T -V volume_id -o cd.iso source_directory Similarly, the bootable ISO9660 image file, "cdboot.iso", can be made from debian-installer like directory tree at "source_directory" by the following. # genisoimage -r -o cdboot.iso -V volume_id \ -b isolinux/isolinux.bin -c isolinux/boot.cat \ -no-emul-boot -boot-load-size 4 -boot-info-table source_directory Here Isolinux boot loader (see ) is used for booting. You can calculate the md5sum value and make the ISO9660 image directly from the CD-ROM device as follows. $ isoinfo -d -i /dev/cdrom CD-ROM is in ISO 9660 format ... Logical block size is: 2048 Volume size is: 23150592 ... # dd if=/dev/cdrom bs=2048 count=23150592 conv=notrunc,noerror | md5sum # dd if=/dev/cdrom bs=2048 count=23150592 conv=notrunc,noerror > cd.iso You must carefully avoid ISO9660 filesystem read ahead bug of Linux as above to get the right result.

DVD is only a large CD to wodim1 provided by cdrkit. You can find a usable device by the following. # wodim --devices Then the blank CD-R is inserted to the CD drive, and the ISO9660 image file, "cd.iso" is written to this device, e.g., "/dev/hda", using wodim1 by the following. # wodim -v -eject dev=/dev/hda cd.iso If CD-RW is used instead of CD-R, do this instead by the following. # wodim -v -eject blank=fast dev=/dev/hda cd.iso If your desktop system mounts CDs automatically, unmount it by "sudo umount /dev/hda" from console before using wodim1.

If "cd.iso" contains an ISO9660 image, then the following manually mounts it to "/cdrom". # mount -t iso9660 -o ro,loop cd.iso /cdrom Modern desktop system may mount removable media such as ISO9660 formatted CD automatically (see ).

Here, we discuss direct manipulations of the binary data on storage media.

The most basic viewing method of binary data is to use "od -t x1" command. package popcon size description coreutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ basic package which has od1 to dump files (HEX, ASCII, OCTAL, …) bsdmainutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utility package which has hd1 to dump files (HEX, ASCII, OCTAL, …) hexedit @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ binary editor and viewer (HEX, ASCII) bless @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ full featured hexadecimal editor (GNOME) okteta @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ full featured hexadecimal editor (KDE4) ncurses-hexedit @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ binary editor and viewer (HEX, ASCII, EBCDIC) beav @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ binary editor and viewer (HEX, ASCII, EBCDIC, OCTAL, …) HEX is used as an acronym for hexadecimal format with radix 16. OCTAL is for octal format with radix 8. ASCII is for American Standard Code for Information Interchange, i.e., normal English text code. EBCDIC is for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code used on IBM mainframe operating systems.

There are tools to read and write files without mounting disk. package popcon size description mtools @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for MSDOS files without mounting them hfsutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for HFS and HFS+ files without mounting them

Software RAID systems offered by the Linux kernel provide data redundancy in the kernel filesystem level to achieve high levels of storage reliability. There are tools to add data redundancy to files in application program level to achieve high levels of storage reliability, too. package popcon size description par2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Parity Archive Volume Set, for checking and repair of files dvdisaster @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ data loss/scratch/aging protection for CD/DVD media dvbackup @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ backup tool using MiniDV camcorders (providing rsbep1) vdmfec @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ recover lost blocks using Forward Error Correction

There are tools for data file recovery and forensic analysis. package popcon size description testdisk @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for partition scan and disk recovery magicrescue @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utility to recover files by looking for magic bytes scalpel @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ frugal, high performance file carver myrescue @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ rescue data from damaged harddisks extundelete @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utility to undelete files on the ext3/4 filesystem ext4magic @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utility to undelete files on the ext3/4 filesystem ext3grep @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ tool to help recover deleted files on the ext3 filesystem scrounge-ntfs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ data recovery program for NTFS filesystems gzrt @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ gzip recovery toolkit sleuthkit @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ tools for forensics analysis. (Sleuthkit) autopsy @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ graphical interface to SleuthKit foremost @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ forensics application to recover data guymager @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ forensic imaging tool based on Qt dcfldd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ enhanced version of dd for forensics and security You can undelete files on the ext2 filesystem using list_deleted_inodes and undel commands of debugfs8 in the e2fsprogs package.

When a data is too big to backup as a single file, you can backup its content after splitting it into, e.g. 2000MiB chunks and merge those chunks back into the original file later. $ split -b 2000m large_file $ cat x* >large_file Please make sure you do not have any files starting with "x" to avoid name crashes.

In order to clear the contents of a file such as a log file, do not use rm1 to delete the file and then create a new empty file, because the file may still be accessed in the interval between commands. The following is the safe way to clear the contents of the file. $ :>file_to_be_cleared

The following commands create dummy or empty files. $ dd if=/dev/zero of=5kb.file bs=1k count=5 $ dd if=/dev/urandom of=7mb.file bs=1M count=7 $ touch zero.file $ : > alwayszero.file You should find following files. "5kb.file" is 5KB of zeros. "7mb.file" is 7MB of random data. "zero.file" may be a 0 byte file. If it existed, its mtime is updated while its content and its length are kept. "alwayszero.file" is always a 0 byte file. If it existed, its mtime is updated and its content is reset.

There are several ways to completely erase data from an entire hard disk like device, e.g., USB memory stick at "/dev/sda". Check your USB memory stick location with mount8 first before executing commands here. The device pointed by "/dev/sda" may be SCSI hard disk or serial-ATA hard disk where your entire system resides. Erase all the disk content by resetting data to 0 with the following. # dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/sda Erase everything by overwriting with random data as follows. # dd if=/dev/urandom of=/dev/sda Erase everything by overwriting with random data very efficiently as follows. # shred -v -n 1 /dev/sda Since dd1 is available from the shell of many bootable Linux CDs such as Debian installer CD, you can erase your installed system completely by running an erase command from such media on the system hard disk, e.g., "/dev/hda", "/dev/sda", etc.

Unused area on an hard disk (or USB memory stick), e.g. "/dev/sdb1" may still contain erased data themselves since they are only unlinked from the filesystem. These can be cleaned by overwriting them. # mount -t auto /dev/sdb1 /mnt/foo # cd /mnt/foo # dd if=/dev/zero of=junk dd: writing to `junk': No space left on device ... # sync # umount /dev/sdb1 This is usually good enough for your USB memory stick. But this is not perfect. Most parts of erased filenames and their attributes may be hidden and remain in the filesystem.

Even if you have accidentally deleted a file, as long as that file is still being used by some application (read or write mode), it is possible to recover such a file. For example, try the following $ echo foo > bar $ less bar $ ps aux | grep ' less[ ]' bozo 4775 0.0 0.0 92200 884 pts/8 S+ 00:18 0:00 less bar $ rm bar $ ls -l /proc/4775/fd | grep bar lr-x------ 1 bozo bozo 64 2008-05-09 00:19 4 -> /home/bozo/bar (deleted) $ cat /proc/4775/fd/4 >bar $ ls -l -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 4 2008-05-09 00:25 bar $ cat bar foo Execute on another terminal (when you have the lsof package installed) as follows. $ ls -li bar 2228329 -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 4 2008-05-11 11:02 bar $ lsof |grep bar|grep less less 4775 bozo 4r REG 8,3 4 2228329 /home/bozo/bar $ rm bar $ lsof |grep bar|grep less less 4775 bozo 4r REG 8,3 4 2228329 /home/bozo/bar (deleted) $ cat /proc/4775/fd/4 >bar $ ls -li bar 2228302 -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 4 2008-05-11 11:05 bar $ cat bar foo

Files with hardlinks can be identified by "ls -li". $ ls -li total 0 2738405 -rw-r--r-- 1 root root 0 2008-09-15 20:21 bar 2738404 -rw-r--r-- 2 root root 0 2008-09-15 20:21 baz 2738404 -rw-r--r-- 2 root root 0 2008-09-15 20:21 foo Both "baz" and "foo" have link counts of "2" (>1) showing them to have hardlinks. Their inode numbers are common "2738404". This means they are the same hardlinked file. If you do not happen to find all hardlinked files by chance, you can search it by the inode, e.g., "2738404" as the following. # find /path/to/mount/point -xdev -inum 2738404

All deleted but open files consume disk space although they are not visible from normal du1. They can be listed with their size by the following. # lsof -s -X / |grep deleted

With physical access to your PC, anyone can easily gain root privilege and access all the files on your PC (see ). This means that login password system can not secure your private and sensitive data against possible theft of your PC. You must deploy data encryption technology to do it. Although GNU privacy guard (see ) can encrypt files, it takes some user efforts. dm-crypt and eCryptfs facilitates automatic data encryption natively via Linux kernel modules with minimal user efforts. package popcon size description cryptsetup @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for encrypted block device (dm-crypt / LUKS) cryptmount @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for encrypted block device (dm-crypt / LUKS) with focus on mount/unmount by normal users ecryptfs-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities for encrypted stacked filesystem (eCryptfs) Dm-crypt is a cryptographic filesystem using device-mapper. Device-mapper maps one block device to another. eCryptfs is another cryptographic filesystem using stacked filesystem. Stacked filesystem stacks itself on top of an existing directory of a mounted filesystem. Data encryption costs CPU time etc. Please weigh its benefits and costs. Entire Debian system can be installed on a encrypted disk by the debian-installer (lenny or newer) using dm-crypt/LUKS and initramfs. See for user space encryption utility: GNU Privacy Guard.

You can encrypt contents of removable mass devices, e.g. USB memory stick on "/dev/sdx", using dm-crypt/LUKS. You simply format it as the following. # badblocks -c 1024 -s -w -t random -v /dev/sdx # fdisk /dev/sdx ... "n" "p" "1" "return" "return" "w" # cryptsetup luksFormat /dev/sdx1 ... # cryptsetup open --type luks /dev/sdx1 sdx1 ... # ls -l /dev/mapper/ total 0 crw-rw---- 1 root root 10, 60 2008-10-04 18:44 control brw-rw---- 1 root disk 254, 0 2008-10-04 23:55 sdx1 # mkfs.vfat /dev/mapper/sdx1 ... # cryptsetup luksClose sdx1 Then, it can be mounted just like normal one on to "/media/<disk_label>", except for asking password (see ) under modern desktop environment, such as GNOME using gnome-mount1. The difference is that every data written to it is encrypted. You may alternatively format media in different filesystem, e.g., ext4 with "mkfs.ext4 /dev/mapper/sdx1". If you are really paranoid for the security of data, you may need to overwrite multiple times (the "badblocks" command in the above example). This operation is very time consuming though.

Let's assume that your original "/etc/fstab" contains the following. /dev/sda7 swap sw 0 0 You can enable encrypted swap partition using dm-crypt by as the following. # aptitude install cryptsetup # swapoff -a # echo "cswap /dev/sda7 /dev/urandom swap" >> /etc/crypttab # perl -i -p -e "s/\/dev\/sda7/\/dev\/mapper\/cswap/" /etc/fstab # /etc/init.d/cryptdisks restart ... # swapon -a

An encrypted disk partition created with dm-crypt/LUKS on "/dev/sdc5" can be mounted onto "/mnt" as follows: $ sudo cryptsetup open /dev/sdc5 ninja --type luks Enter passphrase for /dev/sdc5: **** $ sudo lvm lvm> lvscan inactive '/dev/ninja-vg/root' [13.52 GiB] inherit inactive '/dev/ninja-vg/swap_1' [640.00 MiB] inherit ACTIVE '/dev/goofy/root' [180.00 GiB] inherit ACTIVE '/dev/goofy/swap' [9.70 GiB] inherit lvm> lvchange -a y /dev/ninja-vg/root lvm> exit Exiting. $ sudo mount /dev/ninja-vg/root /mnt

You can encrypt files written under "~/Private/" automatically using eCryptfs and the ecryptfs-utils package. Run ecryptfs-setup-private1 and set up "~/Private/" by following prompts. Activate "~/Private/" by running ecryptfs-mount-private1. Move sensitive data files to "~/Private/" and make symlinks as needed. Candidates: "~/.fetchmailrc", "~/.ssh/identity", "~/.ssh/id_rsa", "~/.ssh/id_dsa" and other files with "go-rwx" Move sensitive data directories to a subdirectory in "~/Private/" and make symlinks as needed. Candidates: "~/.gnupg" and other directories with "go-rwx" Create symlink from "~/Desktop/Private/" to "~/Private/" for easier desktop operations. Deactivate "~/Private/" by running ecryptfs-umount-private1. Activate "~/Private/" by issuing "ecryptfs-mount-private" as you need encrypted data. Since eCryptfs selectively encrypt only the sensitive files, its system cost is much less than using dm-crypt on the entire root or "/home" device. It does not require any special on-disk storage allocation effort but cannot keep all filesystem metadata confidential.

If you use your login password for wrapping encryption keys, you can automate mounting eCryptfs via PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules). Insert the following line just before "pam_permit.so" in "/etc/pam.d/common-auth". auth required pam_ecryptfs.so unwrap Insert the following line just at the last line in "/etc/pam.d/common-session". session optional pam_ecryptfs.so unwrap Insert the following line at first active line in "/etc/pam.d/common-password". password required pam_ecryptfs.so This is quite convenient. Configuration errors of PAM may lock you out of your own system. See . If you use your login password for wrapping encryption keys, your encrypted data are as secure as your user login password (see ). Unless you are careful to set up a strong password, your data is at risk when someone runs password cracking software after stealing your laptop (see ).

Debian distributes modularized Linux kernel as packages for supported architectures.

There are few notable features on Linux kernel 2.6/3.x compared to 2.4. Devices are created by the udev system (see ). Read/write accesses to IDE CD/DVD devices do not use the ide-scsi module. Network packet filtering functions use iptables kernel modules. The version bump from Linux 2.6.39 to Linux 3.0 is not about major technological changes but about the 20th anniversary.

Many Linux features are configurable via kernel parameters as follows. Kernel parameters initialized by the bootloader (see ) Kernel parameters changed by sysctl8 at runtime for ones accessible via sysfs (see ) Module parameters set by arguments of modprobe8 when a module is activated (see ) See "kernel-parameters.txt(.gz)" and other related documents in the Linux kernel documentation ("/usr/share/doc/linux-doc-3.*/Documentation/filesystems/*") provided by the linux-doc-3.* package.

Most normal programs don't need kernel headers and in fact may break if you use them directly for compiling. They should be compiled against the headers in "/usr/include/linux" and "/usr/include/asm" provided by the libc6-dev package (created from the glibc source package) on the Debian system. For compiling some kernel-specific programs such as the kernel modules from the external source and the automounter daemon (amd), you must include path to the corresponding kernel headers, e.g. "-I/usr/src/linux-particular-version/include/", to your command line. module-assistant8 (or its short form m-a) helps users to build and install module package(s) easily for one or more custom kernels.

Debian has its own method of compiling the kernel and related modules. package popcon size description build-essential @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ essential packages for building Debian packages: make, gcc, … bzip2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ compress and decompress utilities for bz2 files libncurses5-dev @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ developer's libraries and docs for ncurses git @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ git: distributed revision control system used by the Linux kernel fakeroot @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ provide fakeroot environment for building package as non-root initramfs-tools @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ tool to build an initramfs (Debian specific) dkms @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ dynamic kernel module support (DKMS) (generic) devscripts @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ helper scripts for a Debian Package maintainer (Debian specific) If you use initrd in , make sure to read the related information in initramfs-tools8, update-initramfs8, mkinitramfs8 and initramfs.conf5. Do not put symlinks to the directories in the source tree (e.g. "/usr/src/linux*") from "/usr/include/linux" and "/usr/include/asm" when compiling the Linux kernel source. (Some outdated documents suggest this.) When compiling the latest Linux kernel on the Debian stable system, the use of backported latest tools from the Debian unstable may be needed. The dynamic kernel module support (DKMS) is a new distribution independent framework designed to allow individual kernel modules to be upgraded without changing the whole kernel. This is used for the maintenance of out-of-tree modules. This also makes it very easy to rebuild modules as you upgrade kernels.

For building custom kernel binary packages from the upstream kernel source, you should use the "deb-pkg" target provided by it. $ sudo apt-get build-dep linux $ cd /usr/src $ wget http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v3.11/linux-<version>.tar.bz2 $ tar -xjvf linux-<version>.tar.bz2 $ cd linux-<version> $ cp /boot/config-<version> .config $ make menuconfig ... $ make deb-pkg The linux-source-<version> package provides the Linux kernel source with Debian patches as "/usr/src/linux-<version>.tar.bz2". For building specific binary packages from the Debian kernel source package, you should use the "binary-arch_<architecture>_<featureset>_<flavour>" targets in "debian/rules.gen". $ sudo apt-get build-dep linux $ apt-get source linux $ cd linux-3.* $ fakeroot make -f debian/rules.gen binary-arch_i386_none_686 See further information: Debian Wiki: KernelFAQ Debian Wiki: DebianKernel Debian Linux Kernel Handbook: https://kernel-handbook.debian.net

The hardware driver is the code running on the target system. Most hardware drivers are available as free software now and are included in the normal Debian kernel packages in the main area. GPU driver Intel GPU driver (main) AMD/ATI GPU driver (main) NVIDIA GPU driver (main for nouveau driver, and non-free for binary-only drivers supported by the vendor.) Softmodem driver martian-modem and sl-modem-dkms packages (non-free) The firmware is the code or data loaded on the device (e.g., CPU microcode, rendering code running on GPU, or FPGA / CPLD data, …). Some firmware packages are available as free software but many firmware packages are not available as free software since they contain sourceless binary data. firmware-linux-free (main) firmware-linux-nonfree (non-free) firmware-linux-* (non-free) *-firmware (non-free) intel-microcode (non-free) amd64-microcode (non-free) Please note that non-free and contrib packages are not part of the Debian system. The access configuration to enable and to disable the non-free and contrib areas is described in . You should be aware of negatives associated with the use of the non-free and contrib packages as described in .

Use of virtualized system enables us to run multiple instances of system simultaneously on a single hardware. See http://wiki.debian.org/SystemVirtualization.

There are several system virtualization and emulation related packages in Debian beyond simple chroot. Some packages also help you to setup such system. package popcon size description schroot @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ specialized tool for executing Debian binary packages in chroot sbuild @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ tool for building Debian binary packages from Debian sources pbuilder @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ personal package builder for Debian packages debootstrap @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ bootstrap a basic Debian system (written in sh) cdebootstrap @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ bootstrap a Debian system (written in C) virt-manager @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Virtual Machine Manager: desktop application for managing virtual machines libvirt-clients @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ programs for the libvirt library bochs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Bochs: IA-32 PC emulator qemu @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ QEMU: fast generic processor emulator qemu-system @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ QEMU: full system emulation binaries qemu-user @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ QEMU: user mode emulation binaries qemu-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ QEMU: utilities qemu-kvm @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ KVM: full virtualization on x86 hardware with the hardware-assisted virtualization virtualbox @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ VirtualBox: x86 virtualization solution on i386 and amd64 xen-tools @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ tools to manage debian XEN virtual server wine @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Wine: Windows API Implementation (standard suite) dosbox @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ DOSBox: x86 emulator with Tandy/Herc/CGA/EGA/VGA/SVGA graphics, sound and DOS dosemu @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ DOSEMU: The Linux DOS Emulator vzctl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ OpenVZ server virtualization solution - control tools vzquota @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ OpenVZ server virtualization solution - quota tools lxc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Linux containers user space tools See Wikipedia article Comparison of platform virtual machines for detail comparison of different platform virtualization solutions.

Some functionalities described here are only available in squeeze or later. Default Debian kernels support KVM since lenny. Typical work flow for virtualization involves several steps. Create an empty filesystem (a file tree or a disk image). The file tree can be created by "mkdir -p /path/to/chroot". The raw disk image file can be created with dd1 (see and ). qemu-img1 can be used to create and convert disk image files supported by QEMU. The raw and VMDK file format can be used as common format among virtualization tools. Mount the disk image with mount8 to the filesystem (optional). For the raw disk image file, mount it as loop device or device mapper devices (see ). For disk images supported by QEMU, mount them as network block device (see ). Populate the target filesystem with required system data. The use of programs such as debootstrap and cdebootstrap helps with this process (see ). Use installers of OSs under the full system emulation. Run a program under a virtualized environment. chroot provides basic virtualized environment enough to compile programs, run console applications, and run daemons in it. QEMU provides cross-platform CPU emulation. QEMU with KVM provides full system emulation by the hardware-assisted virtualization. VirtualBox provides full system emulation on i386 and amd64 with or without the hardware-assisted virtualization.

For the raw disk image file, see . For other virtual disk image files, you can use qemu-nbd8 to export them using network block device protocol and mount them using the nbd kernel module. qemu-nbd8 supports disk formats supported by QEMU: QEMU supports following disk formats: raw, qcow2, qcow, vmdk, vdi, bochs, cow (user-mode Linux copy-on-write), parallels, dmg, cloop, vpc, vvfat (virtual VFAT), and host_device. The network block device can support partitions in the same way as the loop device (see ). You can mount the first partition of "disk.img" as follows. # modprobe nbd max_part=16 # qemu-nbd -v -c /dev/nbd0 disk.img ... # mkdir /mnt/part1 # mount /dev/nbd0p1 /mnt/part1 You may export only the first partition of "disk.img" using "-P 1" option to qemu-nbd8.

chroot8 offers most basic way to run different instances of the GNU/Linux environment on a single system simultaneously without rebooting. Examples below assumes both parent system and chroot system share the same CPU architecture. You can learn how to setup and use chroot8 by running pbuilder8 program under script1 as follows. $ sudo mkdir /sid-root $ sudo pbuilder --create --no-targz --debug --buildplace /sid-root You see how debootstrap8 or cdebootstrap1 populate system data for sid environment under "/sid-root". These debootstrap8 or cdebootstrap1 are used to install Debian by the Debian Installer. These can also be used to install Debian to a system without using a Debian install disk, but instead from another GNU/Linux distribution. $ sudo pbuilder --login --no-targz --debug --buildplace /sid-root You see how a system shell running under sid environment is created as the following. Copy local configuration ("/etc/hosts", "/etc/hostname", "/etc/resolv.conf") Mount "/proc" filesystem Mount "/dev/pts" filesystem Create "/usr/sbin/policy-rc.d" which always exits with 101 Run "chroot /sid-root bin/bash -c 'exec -a -bash bin/bash'" Some programs under chroot may require access to more files from the parent system to function than pbuilder provides. For example, "/sys", "/etc/passwd", "/etc/group", "/var/run/utmp", "/var/log/wtmp", etc. may need to be bind-mounted or copied. The "/usr/sbin/policy-rc.d" file prevents daemon programs to be started automatically on the Debian system. See "/usr/share/doc/sysv-rc/README.policy-rc.d.gz". The original purpose of the specialized chroot package, pbuilder is to construct a chroot system and builds a package inside the chroot. It is an ideal system to use to check that a package's build-dependencies are correct, and to be sure that unnecessary and wrong build dependencies do not exist in the resulting package. Similar schroot package may give you an idea to run i386 chroot system under amd64 parent system.

I recommend you to use QEMU or VirtualBox on a Debian stable system to run multiple desktop systems safely using virtualization. These enable you to run desktop applications of Debian unstable and testing without usual risks associated with them. Since pure QEMU is very slow, it is recommended to accelerate it with KVM when the host system support it. The virtual disk image "virtdisk.qcow2" containing a Debian system for QEMU can be created using debian-installer: Small CDs as follows. $ wget http://cdimage.debian.org/debian-cd/5.0.3/amd64/iso-cd/debian-503-amd64-netinst.iso $ qemu-img create -f qcow2 virtdisk.qcow2 5G $ qemu -hda virtdisk.qcow2 -cdrom debian-503-amd64-netinst.iso -boot d -m 256 ... See more tips at Debian wiki: QEMU. VirtualBox comes with Qt GUI tools and quite intuitive. Its GUI and command line tools are explained in VirtualBox User Manual and VirtualBox User Manual (PDF). Running other GNU/Linux distributions such as Ubuntu and Fedora under virtualization is a great way to learn configuration tips. Other proprietary OSs may be run nicely under this GNU/Linux virtualization, too.

Tools and tips for managing binary and text data on the Debian system are described.

The uncoordinated write access to actively accessed devices and files from multiple processes must not be done to avoid the race condition. File locking mechanisms using flock1 may be used to avoid it. The security of the data and its controlled sharing have several aspects. The creation of data archive The remote storage access The duplication The tracking of the modification history The facilitation of data sharing The prevention of unauthorized file access The detection of unauthorized file modification These can be realized by using some combination of tools. Archive and compression tools Copy and synchronization tools Network filesystems Removable storage media The secure shell The authentication system Version control system tools Hash and cryptographic encryption tools

Here is a summary of archive and compression tools available on the Debian system. package popcon size extension command comment tar @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .tar tar1 the standard archiver (de facto standard) cpio @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .cpio cpio1 Unix System V style archiver, use with find1 binutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .ar ar1 archiver for the creation of static libraries fastjar @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .jar fastjar1 archiver for Java (zip like) pax @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .pax pax1 new POSIX standard archiver, compromise between tar and cpio gzip @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .gz gzip1, zcat1, … GNU LZ77 compression utility (de facto standard) bzip2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .bz2 bzip21, bzcat1, … Burrows-Wheeler block-sorting compression utility with higher compression ratio than gzip1 (slower than gzip with similar syntax) lzma @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .lzma lzma1 LZMA compression utility with higher compression ratio than gzip1 (deprecated) xz-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .xz xz1, xzdec1, … XZ compression utility with higher compression ratio than bzip21 (slower than gzip but faster than bzip2; replacement for LZMA compression utility) p7zip @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .7z 7zr1, p7zip1 7-Zip file archiver with high compression ratio (LZMA compression) p7zip-full @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .7z 7z1, 7za1 7-Zip file archiver with high compression ratio (LZMA compression and others) lzop @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .lzo lzop1 LZO compression utility with higher compression and decompression speed than gzip1 (lower compression ratio than gzip with similar syntax) zip @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .zip zip1 InfoZIP: DOS archive and compression tool unzip @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ .zip unzip1 InfoZIP: DOS unarchive and decompression tool Do not set the "$TAPE" variable unless you know what to expect. It changes tar1 behavior. The gzipped tar1 archive uses the file extension ".tgz" or ".tar.gz". The xz-compressed tar1 archive uses the file extension ".txz" or ".tar.xz". Popular compression method in FOSS tools such as tar1 has been moving as follows: gzip → bzip2 → xz cp1, scp1 and tar1 may have some limitation for special files. cpio1 is most versatile. cpio1 is designed to be used with find1 and other commands and suitable for creating backup scripts since the file selection part of the script can be tested independently. Internal structure of Libreoffice data files are ".jar" file which can be opened also by unzip. The de-facto cross platform archive tool is zip. Use it as "zip -rX" to attain the maximum compatibility. Use also the "-s" option, if the maximum file size matters.

Here is a summary of simple copy and backup tools available on the Debian system. package popcon size tool function coreutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNU cp locally copy files and directories ("-a" for recursive) openssh-client @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ scp remotely copy files and directories (client, "-r" for recursive) openssh-server @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ sshd remotely copy files and directories (remote server) rsync @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ - 1-way remote synchronization and backup unison @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ - 2-way remote synchronization and backup Copying files with rsync8 offers richer features than others. delta-transfer algorithm that sends only the differences between the source files and the existing files in the destination quick check algorithm (by default) that looks for files that have changed in size or in last-modified time "--exclude" and "--exclude-from" options similar to tar1 "a trailing slash on the source directory" syntax that avoids creating an additional directory level at the destination. Execution of the bkup script mentioned in with the "-gl" option under cron8 should provide very similar functionality as Plan9's dumpfs for the static data archive. Version control system (VCS) tools in can function as the multi-way copy and synchronization tools.

Here are several ways to archive and unarchive the entire content of the directory "./source" using different tools. GNU tar1: $ tar -cvJf archive.tar.xz ./source $ tar -xvJf archive.tar.xz Alternatively, by the following. $ find ./source -xdev -print0 | tar -cvJf archive.tar.xz --null -F - cpio1: $ find ./source -xdev -print0 | cpio -ov --null > archive.cpio; xz archive.cpio $ zcat archive.cpio.xz | cpio -i

Here are several ways to copy the entire content of the directory "./source" using different tools. Local copy: "./source" directory → "/dest" directory Remote copy: "./source" directory at local host → "/dest" directory at "user@host.dom" host rsync8: # cd ./source; rsync -aHAXSv . /dest # cd ./source; rsync -aHAXSv . user@host.dom:/dest You can alternatively use "a trailing slash on the source directory" syntax. # rsync -aHAXSv ./source/ /dest # rsync -aHAXSv ./source/ user@host.dom:/dest Alternatively, by the following. # cd ./source; find . -print0 | rsync -aHAXSv0 --files-from=- . /dest # cd ./source; find . -print0 | rsync -aHAXSv0 --files-from=- . user@host.dom:/dest GNU cp1 and openSSH scp1: # cd ./source; cp -a . /dest # cd ./source; scp -pr . user@host.dom:/dest GNU tar1: # (cd ./source && tar cf - . ) | (cd /dest && tar xvfp - ) # (cd ./source && tar cf - . ) | ssh user@host.dom '(cd /dest && tar xvfp - )' cpio1: # cd ./source; find . -print0 | cpio -pvdm --null --sparse /dest You can substitute "." with "foo" for all examples containing "." to copy files from "./source/foo" directory to "/dest/foo" directory. You can substitute "." with the absolute path "/path/to/source/foo" for all examples containing "." to drop "cd ./source;". These copy files to different locations depending on tools used as follows. "/dest/foo": rsync8, GNU cp1, and scp1 "/dest/path/to/source/foo": GNU tar1, and cpio1 rsync8 and GNU cp1 have option "-u" to skip files that are newer on the receiver.

find1 is used to select files for archive and copy commands (see and ) or for xargs1 (see ). This can be enhanced by using its command arguments. Basic syntax of find1 can be summarized as the following. Its conditional arguments are evaluated from left to right. This evaluation stops once its outcome is determined. "Logical OR" (specified by "-o" between conditionals) has lower precedence than "logical AND" (specified by "-a" or nothing between conditionals). "Logical NOT" (specified by "!" before a conditional) has higher precedence than "logical AND". "-prune" always returns logical TRUE and, if it is a directory, searching of file is stopped beyond this point. "-name" matches the base of the filename with shell glob (see ) but it also matches its initial "." with metacharacters such as "*" and "?". (New POSIX feature) "-regex" matches the full path with emacs style BRE (see ) as default. "-size" matches the file based on the file size (value precedented with "+" for larger, precedented with "-" for smaller) "-newer" matches the file newer than the one specified in its argument. "-print0" always returns logical TRUE and print the full filename (null terminated) on the standard output. find1 is often used with an idiomatic style as the following. # find /path/to \ -xdev -regextype posix-extended \ -type f -regex ".*\.cpio|.*~" -prune -o \ -type d -regex ".*/\.git" -prune -o \ -type f -size +99M -prune -o \ -type f -newer /path/to/timestamp -print0 This means to do following actions. Search all files starting from "/path/to" Globally limit its search within its starting filesystem and uses ERE (see ) instead Exclude files matching regex of ".*\.cpio" or ".*~" from search by stop processing Exclude directories matching regex of ".*/\.git" from search by stop processing Exclude files larger than 99 Megabytes (units of 1048576 bytes) from search by stop processing Print filenames which satisfy above search conditions and are newer than "/path/to/timestamp" Please note the idiomatic use of "-prune -o" to exclude files in the above example. For non-Debian Unix-like system, some options may not be supported by find1. In such a case, please consider to adjust matching methods and replace "-print0" with "-print". You may need to adjust related commands too.

When choosing computer data storage media for important data archive, you should be careful about their limitations. For small personal data backup, I use CD-R and DVD-R by the brand name company and store in a cool, shaded, dry, clean environment. (Tape archive media seem to be popular for professional use.) A fire-resistant safe are meant for paper documents. Most of the computer data storage media have less temperature tolerance than paper. I usually rely on multiple secure encrypted copies stored in multiple secure locations. Optimistic storage life of archive media seen on the net (mostly from vendor info). 100+ years : Acid free paper with ink 100 years : Optical storage (CD/DVD, CD/DVD-R) 30 years : Magnetic storage (tape, floppy) 20 years : Phase change optical storage (CD-RW) These do not count on the mechanical failures due to handling etc. Optimistic write cycle of archive media seen on the net (mostly from vendor info). 250,000+ cycles : Harddisk drive 10,000+ cycles : Flash memory 1,000 cycles : CD/DVD-RW 1 cycles : CD/DVD-R, paper Figures of storage life and write cycle here should not be used for decisions on any critical data storage. Please consult the specific product information provided by the manufacture. Since CD/DVD-R and paper have only 1 write cycle, they inherently prevent accidental data loss by overwriting. This is advantage! If you need fast and frequent backup of large amount of data, a hard disk on a remote host linked by a fast network connection, may be the only realistic option.

Removable storage devices may be any one of the following. USB flash drive Hard disk drive Optical disc drive Digital camera Digital music player They may be connected via any one of the following. USB IEEE 1394 / FireWire PC Card Modern desktop environments such as GNOME and KDE can mount these removable devices automatically without a matching "/etc/fstab" entry. udisks package provides a daemon and associated utilities to mount and unmount these devices. D-bus creates events to initiate automatic processes. PolicyKit provides required privileges. Automounted devices may have the "uhelper=" mount option which is used by umount8. Automounting under modern desktop environment happens only when those removable media devices are not listed in "/etc/fstab". Mount point under modern desktop environment is chosen as "/media/<disk_label>" which can be customized by the following. mlabel1 for FAT filesystem genisoimage1 with "-V" option for ISO9660 filesystem tune2fs1 with "-L" option for ext2/ext3/ext4 filesystem The choice of encoding may need to be provided as mount option (see ). The use of the GUI menu to unmount a filesystem may remove its dynamically generated device node such as "/dev/sdc". If you wish to keep its device node, unmount it with the umount8 command from the shell prompt.

When sharing data with other system via removable storage device, you should format it with common filesystem supported by both systems. Here is a list of filesystem choices. filesystem description of typical usage scenario FAT12 cross platform sharing of data on the floppy disk (<32MiB) FAT16 cross platform sharing of data on the small hard disk like device (<2GiB) FAT32 cross platform sharing of data on the large hard disk like device (<8TiB, supported by newer than MS Windows95 OSR2) NTFS cross platform sharing of data on the large hard disk like device (supported natively on MS Windows NT and later version, and supported by NTFS-3G via FUSE on Linux) ISO9660 cross platform sharing of static data on CD-R and DVD+/-R UDF incremental data writing on CD-R and DVD+/-R (new) MINIX filesystem space efficient unix file data storage on the floppy disk ext2 filesystem sharing of data on the hard disk like device with older Linux systems ext3 filesystem sharing of data on the hard disk like device with older Linux systems ext4 filesystem sharing of data on the hard disk like device with current Linux systems See for cross platform sharing of data using device level encryption. The FAT filesystem is supported by almost all modern operating systems and is quite useful for the data exchange purpose via removable hard disk like media. When formatting removable hard disk like devices for cross platform sharing of data with the FAT filesystem, the following should be safe choices. Partitioning them with fdisk8, cfdisk8 or parted8 (see ) into a single primary partition and to mark it as the following. Type "6" for FAT16 for media smaller than 2GB. Type "c" for FAT32 (LBA) for larger media. Formatting the primary partition with mkfs.vfat8 with the following. Just its device name, e.g. "/dev/sda1" for FAT16 The explicit option and its device name, e.g. "-F 32 /dev/sda1" for FAT32 When using the FAT or ISO9660 filesystems for sharing data, the following should be the safe considerations. Archiving files into an archive file first using tar1, or cpio1 to retain the long filename, the symbolic link, the original Unix file permission and the owner information. Splitting the archive file into less than 2 GiB chunks with the split1 command to protect it from the file size limitation. Encrypting the archive file to secure its contents from the unauthorized access. For FAT filesystems by its design, the maximum file size is (2^32 - 1) bytes = (4GiB - 1 byte). For some applications on the older 32 bit OS, the maximum file size was even smaller (2^31 - 1) bytes = (2GiB - 1 byte). Debian does not suffer the latter problem. Microsoft itself does not recommend to use FAT for drives or partitions of over 200 MB. Microsoft highlights its short comings such as inefficient disk space usage in their "Overview of FAT, HPFS, and NTFS File Systems". Of course, we should normally use the ext4 filesystem for Linux. For more on filesystems and accessing filesystems, please read "Filesystems HOWTO".

When sharing data with other system via network, you should use common service. Here are some hints. network service description of typical usage scenario SMB/CIFS network mounted filesystem with Samba sharing files via "Microsoft Windows Network", see smb.conf5 and The Official Samba 3.x.x HOWTO and Reference Guide or the samba-doc package NFS network mounted filesystem with the Linux kernel sharing files via "Unix/Linux Network", see exports5 and Linux NFS-HOWTO HTTP service sharing file between the web server/client HTTPS service sharing file between the web server/client with encrypted Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security (TLS) FTP service sharing file between the FTP server/client Although these filesystems mounted over network and file transfer methods over network are quite convenient for sharing data, these may be insecure. Their network connection must be secured by the following. Encrypt it with SSL/TLS Tunnel it via SSH Tunnel it via VPN Limit it behind the secure firewall See also and .

We all know that computers fail sometime or human errors cause system and data damages. Backup and recovery operations are the essential part of successful system administration. All possible failure modes hit you some day. Keep your backup system simple and backup your system often. Having backup data is more important than how technically good your backup method is. There are 3 key factors which determine actual backup and recovery policy. Knowing what to backup and recover. Data files directly created by you: data in "~/" Data files created by applications used by you: data in "/var/" (except "/var/cache/", "/var/run/", and "/var/tmp/") System configuration files: data in "/etc/" Local softwares: data in "/usr/local/" or "/opt/" System installation information: a memo in plain text on key steps (partition, …) Proven set of data: confirmed by experimental recovery operations in advance Knowing how to backup and recover. Secure storage of data: protection from overwrite and system failure Frequent backup: scheduled backup Redundant backup: data mirroring Fool proof process: easy single command backup Assessing risks and costs involved. Value of data when lost Required resources for backup: human, hardware, software, … Failure mode and their possibility Do not back up the pseudo-filesystem contents found on /proc, /sys, /tmp, and /run (see and ). Unless you know exactly what you are doing, they are huge useless data. As for secure storage of data, data should be at least on different disk partitions preferably on different disks and machines to withstand the filesystem corruption. Important data are best stored on a write-once media such as CD/DVD-R to prevent overwrite accidents. (See for how to write to the storage media from the shell commandline. GNOME desktop GUI environment gives you easy access via menu: "Places→CD/DVD Creator".) You may wish to stop some application daemons such as MTA (see ) while backing up data. You should pay extra care to the backup and restoration of identity related data files such as "/etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key", "/etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key", "~/.gnupg/*", "~/.ssh/*", "/etc/passwd", "/etc/shadow", "/etc/fetchmailrc", "popularity-contest.conf", "/etc/ppp/pap-secrets", and "/etc/exim4/passwd.client". Some of these data can not be regenerated by entering the same input string to the system. If you run a cron job as a user process, you must restore files in "/var/spool/cron/crontabs" directory and restart cron8. See for cron8 and crontab1.

Here is a select list of notable backup utility suites available on the Debian system. package popcon size description dump @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ 4.4 BSD dump8 and restore8 for ext2/ext3/ext4 filesystems xfsdump @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ dump and restore with xfsdump8 and xfsrestore8 for XFS filesystem on GNU/Linux and IRIX backupninja @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ lightweight, extensible meta-backup system bacula-common @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Bacula: network backup, recovery and verification - common support files bacula-client @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Bacula: network backup, recovery and verification - client meta-package bacula-console @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Bacula: network backup, recovery and verification - text console bacula-server @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Bacula: network backup, recovery and verification - server meta-package amanda-common @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Amanda: Advanced Maryland Automatic Network Disk Archiver (Libs) amanda-client @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Amanda: Advanced Maryland Automatic Network Disk Archiver (Client) amanda-server @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Amanda: Advanced Maryland Automatic Network Disk Archiver (Server) backup-manager @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ command-line backup tool backup2l @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ low-maintenance backup/restore tool for mountable media (disk based) backuppc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ BackupPC is a high-performance, enterprise-grade system for backing up PCs (disk based) duplicity @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ (remote) incremental backup flexbackup @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ (remote) incremental backup rdiff-backup @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ (remote) incremental backup restic @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ (remote) incremental backup rsnapshot @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ (remote) incremental backup slbackup @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ (remote) incremental backup Backup tools have their specialized focuses. Mondo Rescue is a backup system to facilitate restoration of complete system quickly from backup CD/DVD etc. without going through normal system installation processes. Regular backups of user data can be realized by a simple script () and cron8. Bacula, Amanda, and BackupPC are full featured backup suite utilities which are focused on regular backups over network. Basic tools described in and can be used to facilitate system backup via custom scripts. Such script can be enhanced by the following. The restic package enables incremental (remote) backups. The rdiff-backup package enables incremental (remote) backups. The dump package helps to archive and restore the whole filesystem incrementally and efficiently. See files in "/usr/share/doc/dump/" and "Is dump really deprecated?" to learn about the dump package.

For a personal Debian desktop system running unstable suite, I only need to protect personal and critical data. I reinstall system once a year anyway. Thus I see no reason to backup the whole system or to install a full featured backup utility. I use a simple script to make a backup archive and burn it into CD/DVD using GUI. Here is an example script for this. #!/bin/sh -e # Copyright (C) 2007-2008 Osamu Aoki <osamu@debian.org>, Public Domain BUUID=1000; USER=osamu # UID and name of a user who accesses backup files BUDIR="/var/backups" XDIR0=".+/Mail|.+/Desktop" XDIR1=".+/\.thumbnails|.+/\.?Trash|.+/\.?[cC]ache|.+/\.gvfs|.+/sessions" XDIR2=".+/CVS|.+/\.git|.+/\.svn|.+/Downloads|.+/Archive|.+/Checkout|.+/tmp" XSFX=".+\.iso|.+\.tgz|.+\.tar\.gz|.+\.tar\.bz2|.+\.cpio|.+\.tmp|.+\.swp|.+~" SIZE="+99M" DATE=$(date --utc +"%Y%m%d-%H%M") [ -d "$BUDIR" ] || mkdir -p "BUDIR" umask 077 dpkg --get-selections \* > /var/lib/dpkg/dpkg-selections.list debconf-get-selections > /var/cache/debconf/debconf-selections { find /etc /usr/local /opt /var/lib/dpkg/dpkg-selections.list \ /var/cache/debconf/debconf-selections -xdev -print0 find /home/$USER /root -xdev -regextype posix-extended \ -type d -regex "$XDIR0|$XDIR1" -prune -o -type f -regex "$XSFX" -prune -o \ -type f -size "$SIZE" -prune -o -print0 find /home/$USER/Mail/Inbox /home/$USER/Mail/Outbox -print0 find /home/$USER/Desktop -xdev -regextype posix-extended \ -type d -regex "$XDIR2" -prune -o -type f -regex "$XSFX" -prune -o \ -type f -size "$SIZE" -prune -o -print0 } | cpio -ov --null -O $BUDIR/BU$DATE.cpio chown $BUUID $BUDIR/BU$DATE.cpio touch $BUDIR/backup.stamp This is meant to be a script example executed from root. I expect you to change and execute this as follows. Edit this script to cover all your important data (see and ). Replace "find … -print0" with "find … -newer $BUDIR/backup.stamp -print0" to make a incremental backup. Transfer backup files to the remote host using scp1 or rsync1 or burn them to CD/DVD for extra data security. (I use GNOME desktop GUI for burning CD/DVD. See for extra redundancy.) Keep it simple! You can recover debconf configuration data with "debconf-set-selections debconf-selections" and dpkg selection data with "dpkg --set-selection <dpkg-selections.list".

For the set of data under a directory tree, the copy with "cp -a" provides the normal backup. For the set of large non-overwritten static data under a directory tree such as the one under the "/var/cache/apt/packages/" directory, hardlinks with "cp -al" provide an alternative to the normal backup with efficient use of the disk space. Here is a copy script, which I named as bkup, for the data backup. This script copies all (non-VCS) files under the current directory to the dated directory on the parent directory or on a remote host. #!/bin/sh -e # Copyright (C) 2007-2008 Osamu Aoki <osamu@debian.org>, Public Domain fdot(){ find . -type d \( -iname ".?*" -o -iname "CVS" \) -prune -o -print0;} fall(){ find . -print0;} mkdircd(){ mkdir -p "$1";chmod 700 "$1";cd "$1">/dev/null;} FIND="fdot";OPT="-a";MODE="CPIOP";HOST="localhost";EXTP="$(hostname -f)" BKUP="$(basename $(pwd)).bkup";TIME="$(date +%Y%m%d-%H%M%S)";BU="$BKUP/$TIME" while getopts gcCsStrlLaAxe:h:T f; do case $f in g) MODE="GNUCP";; # cp (GNU) c) MODE="CPIOP";; # cpio -p C) MODE="CPIOI";; # cpio -i s) MODE="CPIOSSH";; # cpio/ssh t) MODE="TARSSH";; # tar/ssh r) MODE="RSYNCSSH";; # rsync/ssh l) OPT="-alv";; # hardlink (GNU cp) L) OPT="-av";; # copy (GNU cp) a) FIND="fall";; # find all A) FIND="fdot";; # find non CVS/ .???/ x) set -x;; # trace e) EXTP="${OPTARG}";; # hostname -f h) HOST="${OPTARG}";; # user@remotehost.example.com T) MODE="TEST";; # test find mode \?) echo "use -x for trace." esac; done shift $(expr $OPTIND - 1) if [ $# -gt 0 ]; then for x in $@; do cp $OPT $x $x.$TIME; done elif [ $MODE = GNUCP ]; then mkdir -p "../$BU";chmod 700 "../$BU";cp $OPT . "../$BU/" elif [ $MODE = CPIOP ]; then mkdir -p "../$BU";chmod 700 "../$BU" $FIND|cpio --null --sparse -pvd ../$BU elif [ $MODE = CPIOI ]; then $FIND|cpio -ov --null | ( mkdircd "../$BU"&&cpio -i ) elif [ $MODE = CPIOSSH ]; then $FIND|cpio -ov --null|ssh -C $HOST "( mkdircd \"$EXTP/$BU\"&&cpio -i )" elif [ $MODE = TARSSH ]; then (tar cvf - . )|ssh -C $HOST "( mkdircd \"$EXTP/$BU\"&& tar xvfp - )" elif [ $MODE = RSYNCSSH ]; then rsync -aHAXSv ./ "${HOST}:${EXTP}-${BKUP}-${TIME}" else echo "Any other idea to backup?" $FIND |xargs -0 -n 1 echo fi This is meant to be command examples. Please read script and edit it by yourself before using it. I keep this bkup in my "/usr/local/bin/" directory. I issue this bkup command without any option in the working directory whenever I need a temporary snapshot backup. For making snapshot history of a source file tree or a configuration file tree, it is easier and space efficient to use git7 (see ).

The data security infrastructure is provided by the combination of data encryption tool, message digest tool, and signature tool. package popcon size command description gnupg @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ gpg1 GNU Privacy Guard - OpenPGP encryption and signing tool gpgv @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ gpgv1 GNU Privacy Guard - signature verification tool paperkey @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ paperkey1 extract just the secret information out of OpenPGP secret keys cryptsetup @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ cryptsetup8, … utilities for dm-crypto block device encryption supporting LUKS ecryptfs-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ecryptfs7, … utilities for ecryptfs stacked filesystem encryption coreutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ md5sum1 compute and check MD5 message digest coreutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ sha1sum1 compute and check SHA1 message digest openssl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ openssl1ssl compute message digest with "openssl dgst" (OpenSSL) See on dm-crypto and ecryptfs which implement automatic data encryption infrastructure via Linux kernel modules.

Here are GNU Privacy Guard commands for the basic key management. command description gpg --gen-key generate a new key gpg --gen-revoke my_user_ID generate revoke key for my_user_ID gpg --edit-key user_ID edit key interactively, "help" for help gpg -o file --export export all keys to file gpg --import file import all keys from file gpg --send-keys user_ID send key of user_ID to keyserver gpg --recv-keys user_ID recv. key of user_ID from keyserver gpg --list-keys user_ID list keys of user_ID gpg --list-sigs user_ID list sig. of user_ID gpg --check-sigs user_ID check sig. of user_ID gpg --fingerprint user_ID check fingerprint of user_ID gpg --refresh-keys update local keyring Here is the meaning of the trust code. code description of trust - no owner trust assigned / not yet calculated e trust calculation failed q not enough information for calculation n never trust this key m marginally trusted f fully trusted u ultimately trusted The following uploads my key "1DD8D791" to the popular keyserver "hkp://keys.gnupg.net". $ gpg --keyserver hkp://keys.gnupg.net --send-keys 1DD8D791 A good default keyserver set up in "~/.gnupg/gpg.conf" (or old location "~/.gnupg/options") contains the following. keyserver hkp://keys.gnupg.net The following obtains unknown keys from the keyserver. $ gpg --list-sigs --with-colons | grep '^sig.*\[User ID not found\]' |\ cut -d ':' -f 5| sort | uniq | xargs gpg --recv-keys There was a bug in OpenPGP Public Key Server (pre version 0.9.6) which corrupted key with more than 2 sub-keys. The newer gnupg (>1.2.1-2) package can handle these corrupted subkeys. See gpg1 under "--repair-pks-subkey-bug" option.

Here are examples for using GNU Privacy Guard commands on files. command description gpg -a -s file sign file into ASCII armored file.asc gpg --armor --sign file , , gpg --clearsign file clear-sign message gpg --clearsign file|mail foo@example.org mail a clear-signed message to foo@example.org gpg --clearsign --not-dash-escaped patchfile clear-sign patchfile gpg --verify file verify clear-signed file gpg -o file.sig -b file create detached signature gpg -o file.sig --detach-sig file , , gpg --verify file.sig file verify file with file.sig gpg -o crypt_file.gpg -r name -e file public-key encryption intended for name from file to binary crypt_file.gpg gpg -o crypt_file.gpg --recipient name --encrypt file , , gpg -o crypt_file.asc -a -r name -e file public-key encryption intended for name from file to ASCII armored crypt_file.asc gpg -o crypt_file.gpg -c file symmetric encryption from file to crypt_file.gpg gpg -o crypt_file.gpg --symmetric file , , gpg -o crypt_file.asc -a -c file symmetric encryption intended for name from file to ASCII armored crypt_file.asc gpg -o file -d crypt_file.gpg -r name decryption gpg -o file --decrypt crypt_file.gpg , ,

Add the following to "~/.muttrc" to keep a slow GnuPG from automatically starting, while allowing it to be used by typing "S" at the index menu. macro index S ":toggle pgp_verify_sig\n" set pgp_verify_sig=no

The gnupg plugin let you run GnuPG transparently for files with extension ".gpg", ".asc", and ".ppg". # aptitude install vim-scripts vim-addon-manager $ vim-addons install gnupg

md5sum1 provides utility to make a digest file using the method in rfc1321 and verifying each file with it. $ md5sum foo bar >baz.md5 $ cat baz.md5 d3b07384d113edec49eaa6238ad5ff00 foo c157a79031e1c40f85931829bc5fc552 bar $ md5sum -c baz.md5 foo: OK bar: OK The computation for the MD5 sum is less CPU intensive than the one for the cryptographic signature by GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG). Usually, only the top level digest file is cryptographically signed to ensure data integrity.

There are many merge tools for the source code. Following commands caught my eyes. package popcon size command description diffutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ diff1 compare files line by line diffutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ diff31 compare and merges three files line by line vim @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ vimdiff1 compare 2 files side by side in vim patch @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ patch1 apply a diff file to an original dpatch @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ dpatch1 manage series of patches for Debian package diffstat @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ diffstat1 produce a histogram of changes by the diff patchutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ combinediff1 create a cumulative patch from two incremental patches patchutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ dehtmldiff1 extract a diff from an HTML page patchutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ filterdiff1 extract or excludes diffs from a diff file patchutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ fixcvsdiff1 fix diff files created by CVS that patch1 mis-interprets patchutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ flipdiff1 exchange the order of two patches patchutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ grepdiff1 show which files are modified by a patch matching a regex patchutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ interdiff1 show differences between two unified diff files patchutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ lsdiff1 show which files are modified by a patch patchutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ recountdiff1 recompute counts and offsets in unified context diffs patchutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ rediff1 fix offsets and counts of a hand-edited diff patchutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ splitdiff1 separate out incremental patches patchutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ unwrapdiff1 demangle patches that have been word-wrapped wiggle @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ wiggle1 apply rejected patches quilt @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ quilt1 manage series of patches meld @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ meld1 compare and merge files (GTK) dirdiff @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ dirdiff1 display differences and merge changes between directory trees docdiff @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ docdiff1 compare two files word by word / char by char imediff @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ imediff1 interactive full screen 2/3-way merge tool makepatch @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ makepatch1 generate extended patch files makepatch @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ applypatch1 apply extended patch files wdiff @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ wdiff1 display word differences between text files

The following procedures extract differences between two source files and create unified diff files "file.patch0" or "file.patch1" depending on the file location. $ diff -u file.old file.new > file.patch0 $ diff -u old/file new/file > file.patch1

The diff file (alternatively called patch file) is used to send a program update. The receiving party applies this update to another file by the following. $ patch -p0 file < file.patch0 $ patch -p1 file < file.patch1

If you have three versions of a source code, you can perform 3-way-merge effectively using diff31 by the following. $ diff3 -m file.mine file.old file.yours > file

Here is a summary of the version control systems (VCS) on the Debian system. If you are new to VCS systems, you should start learning with Git, which is growing fast in popularity. package popcon size tool VCS type comment cssc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ CSSC local clone of the Unix SCCS (deprecated) rcs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ RCS local "Unix SCCS done right" cvs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ CVS remote previous standard remote VCS subversion @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Subversion remote "CVS done right", the new de facto standard remote VCS git @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Git distributed fast DVCS in C (used by the Linux kernel and others) mercurial @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Mercurial distributed DVCS in Python and some C bzr @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Bazaar distributed DVCS influenced by tla written in Python (used by Ubuntu) darcs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Darcs distributed DVCS with smart algebra of patches (slow) tla @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNU arch distributed DVCS mainly by Tom Lord (Historic) monotone @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Monotone distributed DVCS in C++ tkcvs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ CVS, … remote GUI display of VCS (CVS, Subversion, RCS) repository tree gitk @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Git distributed GUI display of VCS (Git) repository tree VCS is sometimes known as revision control system (RCS), or software configuration management (SCM). Distributed VCS such as Git is the tool of choice these days. CVS and Subversion may still be useful to join some existing open source program activities. Debian provides free Git services via Debian Salsa service. Its documentation can be found at https://wiki.debian.org/Salsa . Debian has closed its old alioth services and the old alioth service data are available at alioth-archive as tarballs. There are few basics for creating a shared access VCS archive. Use "umask 002" (see ) Make all VCS archive files belonging to a pertinent group Enable set group ID on all VCS archive directories (BSD-like file creation scheme, see ) Make user sharing the VCS archive belonging to the group

Here is an oversimplified comparison of native VCS commands to provide the big picture. The typical command sequence may require options and arguments. Git CVS Subversion function git init cvs init svn create create the (local) repository - cvs login - login to the remote repository git clone cvs co svn co check out the remote repository as the working tree git pull cvs up svn up update the working tree by merging the remote repository git add . cvs add svn add add file(s) in the working tree to the VCS git rm cvs rm svn rm remove file(s) in working tree from the VCS - cvs ci svn ci commit changes to the remote repository git commit -a - - commit changes to the local repository git push - - update the remote repository by the local repository git status cvs status svn status display the working tree status from the VCS git diff cvs diff svn diff diff <reference_repository> <working_tree> git repack -a -d; git prune - - repack the local repository into single pack gitk tkcvs tkcvs GUI display of VCS repository tree Invoking a git subcommand directly as "git-xyz" from the command line has been deprecated since early 2006. If there is a executable file git-foo in the path specified by $PATH, entring "git foo" without hyphen to the command line invokes this git-foo. This is a feature of the git command. GUI tools such as tkcvs1 and gitk1 really help you with tracking revision history of files. The web interface provided by many public archives for browsing their repositories is also quite useful, too. Git can work directly with different VCS repositories such as ones provided by CVS and Subversion, and provides the local repository for local changes with git-cvs and git-svn packages. See git for CVS users, and . Git has commands which have no equivalents in CVS and Subversion: "fetch", "rebase", "cherry-pick", …

Git can do everything for both local and remote source code management. This means that you can record the source code changes without needing network connectivity to the remote repository.

You may wish to set several global configuration in "~/.gitconfig" such as your name and email address used by Git by the following. $ git config --global user.name "Name Surname" $ git config --global user.email yourname@example.com If you are too used to CVS or Subversion commands, you may wish to set several command aliases by the following. $ git config --global alias.ci "commit -a" $ git config --global alias.co checkout You can check your global configuration by the following. $ git config --global --list

See the following. manpage: git(1) (/usr/share/doc/git-doc/git.html) Git User's Manual (/usr/share/doc/git-doc/user-manual.html) A tutorial introduction to git (/usr/share/doc/git-doc/gittutorial.html) A tutorial introduction to git: part two (/usr/share/doc/git-doc/gittutorial-2.html) Everyday GIT With 20 Commands Or So (/usr/share/doc/git-doc/everyday.html) git for CVS users (/usr/share/doc/git-doc/gitcvs-migration.html) This also describes how to set up server like CVS and extract old data from CVS into Git. Other git resources available on the web Git - SVN Crash Course Git Magic (/usr/share/doc/gitmagic/html/index.html) git-gui1 and gitk1 commands make using Git very easy. Do not use the tag string with spaces in it even if some tools such as gitk1 allow you to use it. It may choke some other git commands.

Even if your upstream uses different VCS, it may be a good idea to use git1 for local activity since you can manage your local copy of source tree without the network connection to the upstream. Here are some packages and commands used with git1. package popcon size command description git-doc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ N/A official documentation for Git gitmagic @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ N/A "Git Magic", easier to understand guide for Git git @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ git7 Git, the fast, scalable, distributed revision control system gitk @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ gitk1 GUI Git repository browser with history git-gui @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ git-gui1 GUI for Git (No history) git-svn @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ git-svnimport1 import the data out of Subversion into Git git-svn @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ git-svn1 provide bidirectional operation between the Subversion and Git git-cvs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ git-cvsimport1 import the data out of CVS into Git git-cvs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ git-cvsexportcommit1 export a commit to a CVS checkout from Git git-cvs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ git-cvsserver1 CVS server emulator for Git git-email @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ git-send-email1 send a collection of patches as email from the Git stgit @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ stg1 quilt on top of git (Python) git-buildpackage @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ git-buildpackage1 automate the Debian packaging with the Git guilt @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ guilt7 quilt on top of git (SH/AWK/SED/…) With git1, you work on a local branch with many commits and use something like "git rebase -i master" to reorganize change history later. This enables you to make clean change history. See git-rebase1 and git-cherry-pick1. When you want to go back to a clean working directory without loosing the current state of the working directory, you can use "git stash". See git-stash1.

You can check out a Subversion repository at "svn+ssh://svn.example.org/project/module/trunk" to a local Git repository at "./dest" and commit back to the Subversion repository. E.g.: $ git svn clone -s -rHEAD svn+ssh://svn.example.org/project dest $ cd dest ... make changes $ git commit -a ... keep working locally with git $ git svn dcommit The use of "-rHEAD" enables us to avoid cloning entire historical contents from the Subversion repository.

You can manually record chronological history of configuration using Git tools. Here is a simple example for your practice to record "/etc/apt/" contents. $ cd /etc/apt/ $ sudo git init $ sudo chmod 700 .git $ sudo git add . $ sudo git commit -a Commit configuration with description. Make modification to the configuration files. $ cd /etc/apt/ $ sudo git commit -a Commit configuration with description and continue your life. $ cd /etc/apt/ $ sudo gitk --all You have full configuration history with you. sudo8 is needed to work with any file permissions of configuration data. For user configuration data, you may skip sudo. The "chmod 700 .git" command in the above example is needed to protect archive data from unauthorized read access. For more complete setup for recording configuration history, please look for the etckeeper package: .

CVS is an older version control system before Subversion and Git. Many URLs found in the below examples for CVS don't exist any more. See the following. cvs1 "/usr/share/doc/cvs/html-cvsclient" "/usr/share/doc/cvs/html-info" "/usr/share/doc/cvsbook" "info cvs"

The following configuration allows commits to the CVS repository only by a member of the "src" group, and administration of CVS only by a member of the "staff" group, thus reducing the chance of shooting oneself. # cd /var/lib; umask 002; mkdir cvs # export CVSROOT=/srv/cvs/project # cd $CVSROOT # chown root:src . # chmod 2775 . # cvs -d $CVSROOT init # cd CVSROOT # chown -R root:staff . # chmod 2775 . # touch val-tags # chmod 664 history val-tags # chown root:src history val-tags You may restrict creation of new project by changing the owner of "$CVSROOT" directory to "root:staff" and its permission to "3775".

The default CVS repository is pointed by "$CVSROOT". The following sets up "$CVSROOT" for the local access. $ export CVSROOT=/srv/cvs/project

Many public CVS servers provide read-only remote access to them with account name "anonymous" via pserver service. For example, Debian web site contents were maintained by webwml project via CVS at Debian alioth service. The following was used to set up "$CVSROOT" for the remote access to this old CVS repository. $ export CVSROOT=:pserver:anonymous@anonscm.debian.org:/cvs/webwml $ cvs login Since pserver is prone to eavesdropping attack and insecure, write access is usually disable by server administrators.

The following was used to set up "$CVS_RSH" and "$CVSROOT" for the remote access to the old CVS repository by webwml project with SSH. $ export CVS_RSH=ssh $ export CVSROOT=:ext:account@cvs.alioth.debian.org:/cvs/webwml You can also use public key authentication for SSH which eliminates the remote password prompt.

Create a new local source tree location at "~/path/to/module1" by the following. $ mkdir -p ~/path/to/module1; cd ~/path/to/module1 Populate a new local source tree under "~/path/to/module1" with files. Import it to CVS with the following parameters. Module name: "module1" Vendor tag: "Main-branch" (tag for the entire branch) Release tag: "Release-initial" (tag for a specific release) $ cd ~/path/to/module1 $ cvs import -m "Start module1" module1 Main-branch Release-initial $ rm -Rf . # optional

CVS does not overwrite the current repository file but replaces it with another one. Thus, write permission to the repository directory is critical. For every new module for "module1" in repository at "/srv/cvs/project", run the following to ensure this condition if needed. # cd /srv/cvs/project # chown -R root:src module1 # chmod -R ug+rwX module1 # chmod 2775 module1

Here is an example of typical work flow using CVS. Check all available modules from CVS project pointed by "$CVSROOT" by the following. $ cvs rls CVSROOT module1 module2 ... Checkout "module1" to its default directory "./module1" by the following. $ cd ~/path/to $ cvs co module1 $ cd module1 Make changes to the content as needed. Check changes by making "diff -u [repository] [local]" equivalent by the following. $ cvs diff -u You find that you broke some file "file_to_undo" severely but other files are fine. Overwrite "file_to_undo" file with the clean copy from CVS by the following. $ cvs up -C file_to_undo Save the updated local source tree to CVS by the following. $ cvs ci -m "Describe change" Create and add "file_to_add" file to CVS by the following. $ vi file_to_add $ cvs add file_to_add $ cvs ci -m "Added file_to_add" Merge the latest version from CVS by the following. $ cvs up -d Watch out for lines starting with "C filename" which indicates conflicting changes. Look for unmodified code in ".#filename.version". Search for "<<<<<<<" and ">>>>>>>" in files for conflicting changes. Edit files to fix conflicts as needed. Add a release tag "Release-1" by the following. $ cvs ci -m "last commit for Release-1" $ cvs tag Release-1 Edit further. Remove the release tag "Release-1" by the following. $ cvs tag -d Release-1 Check in changes to CVS by the following. $ cvs ci -m "real last commit for Release-1" Re-add the release tag "Release-1" to updated CVS HEAD of main by the following. $ cvs tag Release-1 Create a branch with a sticky branch tag "Release-initial-bugfixes" from the original version pointed by the tag "Release-initial" and check it out to "~/path/to/old" directory by the following. $ cvs rtag -b -r Release-initial Release-initial-bugfixes module1 $ cd ~/path/to $ cvs co -r Release-initial-bugfixes -d old module1 $ cd old Use "-D 2005-12-20" (ISO 8601 date format) instead of "-r Release-initial" to specify particular date as the branch point. Work on this local source tree having the sticky tag "Release-initial-bugfixes" which is based on the original version. Work on this branch by yourself … until someone else joins to this "Release-initial-bugfixes" branch. Sync with files modified by others on this branch while creating new directories as needed by the following. $ cvs up -d Edit files to fix conflicts as needed. Check in changes to CVS by the following. $ cvs ci -m "checked into this branch" Update the local tree by HEAD of main while removing sticky tag ("-A") and without keyword expansion ("-kk") by the following. $ cvs up -d -kk -A Update the local tree (content = HEAD of main) by merging from the "Release-initial-bugfixes" branch and without keyword expansion by the following. $ cvs up -d -kk -j Release-initial-bugfixes Fix conflicts with editor. Check in changes to CVS by the following. $ cvs ci -m "merged Release-initial-bugfixes" Make archive by the following. $ cd .. $ mv old old-module1-bugfixes $ tar -cvzf old-module1-bugfixes.tar.gz old-module1-bugfixes $ rm -rf old-module1-bugfixes "cvs up" command can take "-d" option to create new directories and "-P" option to prune empty directories. You can checkout only a sub directory of "module1" by providing its name as "cvs co module1/subdir". option meaning -n dry run, no effect -t display messages showing steps of cvs activity

To get the latest files from CVS, use "tomorrow" by the following. $ cvs ex -D tomorrow module_name

Add module alias "mx" to a CVS project (local server) by the following. $ export CVSROOT=/srv/cvs/project $ cvs co CVSROOT/modules $ cd CVSROOT $ echo "mx -a module1" >>modules $ cvs ci -m "Now mx is an alias for module1" $ cvs release -d . Now, you can check out "module1" (alias: "mx") from CVS to "new" directory by the following. $ cvs co -d new mx $ cd new In order to perform above procedure, you should have appropriate file permissions.

When you checkout files from CVS, their execution permission bit is retained. Whenever you see execution permission problems in a checked out file, e.g. "filename", change its permission in the corresponding CVS repository by the following to fix it. # chmod ugo-x filename

Subversion is an older version control system before Git but after CVS. It lacks tagging and branching features found in CVS and Git. You need to install subversion, libapache2-mod-svn and subversion-tools packages to set up a Subversion server.

Currently, the subversion package does not set up a repository, so one must set it up manually. One possible location for a repository is in "/srv/svn/project". Create a directory by the following. # mkdir -p /srv/svn/project Create the repository database by the following. # svnadmin create /srv/svn/project

If you only access Subversion repository via Apache2 server, you just need to make the repository only writable by the WWW server by the following. # chown -R www-data:www-data /srv/svn/project Add (or uncomment) the following in "/etc/apache2/mods-available/dav_svn.conf" to allow access to the repository via user authentication. <Location /project> DAV svn SVNPath /srv/svn/project AuthType Basic AuthName "Subversion repository" AuthUserFile /etc/subversion/passwd <LimitExcept GET PROPFIND OPTIONS REPORT> Require valid-user </LimitExcept> </Location> Create a user authentication file with the command by the following. # htpasswd2 -c /etc/subversion/passwd some-username Restart Apache2. Your new Subversion repository is accessible at URL "http://localhost/project" and "http://example.com/project" from svn1 (assuming your URL of web server is "http://example.com/").

The following sets up Subversion repository for the local access by a group, e.g. project. # chmod 2775 /srv/svn/project # chown -R root:src /srv/svn/project # chmod -R ug+rwX /srv/svn/project Your new Subversion repository is group accessible at URL "file:///localhost/srv/svn/project" or "file:///srv/svn/project" from svn1 for local users belonging to project group. You must run commands, such as svn, svnserve, svnlook, and svnadmin under "umask 002" to ensure group access.

A group accessible Subversion repository is at URL "example.com:/srv/svn/project" for SSH, you can access it from svn1 at URL "svn+ssh://example.com:/srv/svn/project".

Many projects uses directory tree similar to the following for Subversion to compensate its lack of branches and tags. ----- module1 | |-- branches | |-- tags | | |-- release-1.0 | | `-- release-2.0 | | | `-- trunk | |-- file1 | |-- file2 | `-- file3 | `-- module2 You must use "svn copy …" command to mark branches and tags. This ensures Subversion to record modification history of files properly and saves storage spaces.

Create a new local source tree location at "~/path/to/module1" by the following. $ mkdir -p ~/path/to/module1; cd ~/path/to/module1 Populate a new local source tree under "~/path/to/module1" with files. Import it to Subversion with the following parameters. Module name: "module1" Subversion site URL: "file:///srv/svn/project" Subversion directory: "module1/trunk" Subversion tag: "module1/tags/Release-initial" $ cd ~/path/to/module1 $ svn import file:///srv/svn/project/module1/trunk -m "Start module1" $ svn cp file:///srv/svn/project/module1/trunk file:///srv/svn/project/module1/tags/Release-initial Alternatively, by the following. $ svn import ~/path/to/module1 file:///srv/svn/project/module1/trunk -m "Start module1" $ svn cp file:///srv/svn/project/module1/trunk file:///srv/svn/project/module1/tags/Release-initial You can replace URLs such as "file:///…" by any other URL formats such as "http://…" and "svn+ssh://…".

Here is an example of typical work flow using Subversion with its native client. Client commands offered by the git-svn package may offer alternative work flow of Subversion using the git command. See . Check all available modules from Subversion project pointed by URL "file:///srv/svn/project" by the following. $ svn list file:///srv/svn/project module1 module2 ... Checkout "module1/trunk" to a directory "module1" by the following. $ cd ~/path/to $ svn co file:///srv/svn/project/module1/trunk module1 $ cd module1 Make changes to the content as needed. Check changes by making "diff -u [repository] [local]" equivalent by the following. $ svn diff You find that you broke some file "file_to_undo" severely but other files are fine. Overwrite "file_to_undo" file with the clean copy from Subversion by the following. $ svn revert file_to_undo Save the updated local source tree to Subversion by the following. $ svn ci -m "Describe change" Create and add "file_to_add" file to Subversion by the following. $ vi file_to_add $ svn add file_to_add $ svn ci -m "Added file_to_add" Merge the latest version from Subversion by the following. $ svn up Watch out for lines starting with "C filename" which indicates conflicting changes. Look for unmodified code in, e.g., "filename.r6", "filename.r9", and "filename.mine". Search for "<<<<<<<" and ">>>>>>>" in files for conflicting changes. Edit files to fix conflicts as needed. Add a release tag "Release-1" by the following. $ svn ci -m "last commit for Release-1" $ svn cp file:///srv/svn/project/module1/trunk file:///srv/svn/project/module1/tags/Release-1 Edit further. Remove the release tag "Release-1" by the following. $ svn rm file:///srv/svn/project/module1/tags/Release-1 Check in changes to Subversion by the following. $ svn ci -m "real last commit for Release-1" Re-add the release tag "Release-1" from updated Subversion HEAD of trunk by the following. $ svn cp file:///srv/svn/project/module1/trunk file:///srv/svn/project/module1/tags/Release-1 Create a branch with a path "module1/branches/Release-initial-bugfixes" from the original version pointed by the path "module1/tags/Release-initial" and check it out to "~/path/to/old" directory by the following. $ svn cp file:///srv/svn/project/module1/tags/Release-initial file:///srv/svn/project/module1/branches/Release-initial-bugfixes $ cd ~/path/to $ svn co file:///srv/svn/project/module1/branches/Release-initial-bugfixes old $ cd old Use "module1/trunk@{2005-12-20}" (ISO 8601 date format) instead of "module1/tags/Release-initial" to specify particular date as the branch point. Work on this local source tree pointing to branch "Release-initial-bugfixes" which is based on the original version. Work on this branch by yourself … until someone else joins to this "Release-initial-bugfixes" branch. Sync with files modified by others on this branch by the following. $ svn up Edit files to fix conflicts as needed. Check in changes to Subversion by the following. $ svn ci -m "checked into this branch" Update the local tree with HEAD of trunk by the following. $ svn switch file:///srv/svn/project/module1/trunk Update the local tree (content = HEAD of trunk) by merging from the "Release-initial-bugfixes" branch by the following. $ svn merge file:///srv/svn/project/module1/branches/Release-initial-bugfixes Fix conflicts with editor. Check in changes to Subversion by the following. $ svn ci -m "merged Release-initial-bugfixes" Make archive by the following. $ cd .. $ mv old old-module1-bugfixes $ tar -cvzf old-module1-bugfixes.tar.gz old-module1-bugfixes $ rm -rf old-module1-bugfixes You can replace URLs such as "file:///…" by any other URL formats such as "http://…" and "svn+ssh://…". You can checkout only a sub directory of "module1" by providing its name as "svn co file:///srv/svn/project/module1/trunk/subdir module1/subdir", etc. option meaning --dry-run dry run, no effect -v display detail messages of svn activity

Tools and tips for converting data formats on the Debian system are described. Standard based tools are in very good shape but support for proprietary data formats are limited.

Following packages for the text data conversion caught my eyes. package popcon size keyword description libc6 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ charset text encoding converter between locales by iconv1 (fundamental) recode @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ charset+eol text encoding converter between locales (versatile, more aliases and features) konwert @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ charset text encoding converter between locales (fancy) nkf @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ charset character set translator for Japanese tcs @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ charset character set translator unaccent @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ charset replace accented letters by their unaccented equivalent tofrodos @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ eol text format converter between DOS and Unix: fromdos1 and todos1 macutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ eol text format converter between Macintosh and Unix: frommac1 and tomac1

iconv1 is provided as a part of the libc6 package and it is always available on practically all Unix-like systems to convert the encoding of characters. You can convert encodings of a text file with iconv1 by the following. $ iconv -f encoding1 -t encoding2 input.txt >output.txt Encoding values are case insensitive and ignore "-" and "_" for matching. Supported encodings can be checked by the "iconv -l" command. encoding value usage ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange, 7 bit code w/o accented characters UTF-8 current multilingual standard for all modern OSs ISO-8859-1 old standard for western European languages, ASCII + accented characters ISO-8859-2 old standard for eastern European languages, ASCII + accented characters ISO-8859-15 old standard for western European languages, ISO-8859-1 with euro sign CP850 code page 850, Microsoft DOS characters with graphics for western European languages, ISO-8859-1 variant CP932 code page 932, Microsoft Windows style Shift-JIS variant for Japanese CP936 code page 936, Microsoft Windows style GB2312, GBK or GB18030 variant for Simplified Chinese CP949 code page 949, Microsoft Windows style EUC-KR or Unified Hangul Code variant for Korean CP950 code page 950, Microsoft Windows style Big5 variant for Traditional Chinese CP1251 code page 1251, Microsoft Windows style encoding for the Cyrillic alphabet CP1252 code page 1252, Microsoft Windows style ISO-8859-15 variant for western European languages KOI8-R old Russian UNIX standard for the Cyrillic alphabet ISO-2022-JP standard encoding for Japanese email which uses only 7 bit codes eucJP old Japanese UNIX standard 8 bit code and completely different from Shift-JIS Shift-JIS JIS X 0208 Appendix 1 standard for Japanese (see CP932) Some encodings are only supported for the data conversion and are not used as locale values (). For character sets which fit in single byte such as ASCII and ISO-8859 character sets, the character encoding means almost the same thing as the character set. For character sets with many characters such as JIS X 0213 for Japanese or Universal Character Set (UCS, Unicode, ISO-10646-1) for practically all languages, there are many encoding schemes to fit them into the sequence of the byte data. EUC and ISO/IEC 2022 (also known as JIS X 0202) for Japanese UTF-8, UTF-16/UCS-2 and UTF-32/UCS-4 for Unicode For these, there are clear differentiations between the character set and the character encoding. The code page is used as the synonym to the character encoding tables for some vendor specific ones. Please note most encoding systems share the same code with ASCII for the 7 bit characters. But there are some exceptions. If you are converting old Japanese C programs and URLs data from the casually-called shift-JIS encoding format to UTF-8 format, use "CP932" as the encoding name instead of "shift-JIS" to get the expected results: 0x5C → "\" and 0x7E → "~". Otherwise, these are converted to wrong characters. recode1 may be used too and offers more than the combined functionality of iconv1, fromdos1, todos1, frommac1, and tomac1. For more, see "info recode".

You can check if a text file is encoded in UTF-8 with iconv1 by the following. $ iconv -f utf8 -t utf8 input.txt >/dev/null || echo "non-UTF-8 found" Use "--verbose" option in the above example to find the first non-UTF-8 character.

Here is an example script to convert encoding of file names from ones created under older OS to modern UTF-8 ones in a single directory. #!/bin/sh ENCDN=iso-8859-1 for x in *; do mv "$x" "$(echo "$x" | iconv -f $ENCDN -t utf-8)" done The "$ENCDN" variable specifies the original encoding used for file names under older OS as in . For more complicated case, please mount a filesystem (e.g. a partition on a disk drive) containing such file names with proper encoding as the mount8 option (see ) and copy its entire contents to another filesystem mounted as UTF-8 with "cp -a" command.

The text file format, specifically the end-of-line (EOL) code, is dependent on the platform. platform EOL code control decimal hexadecimal Debian (unix) LF ^J 10 0A MSDOS and Windows CR-LF ^M^J 13 10 0D 0A Apple's Macintosh CR ^M 13 0D The EOL format conversion programs, fromdos1, todos1, frommac1, and tomac1, are quite handy. recode1 is also useful. Some data on the Debian system, such as the wiki page data for the python-moinmoin package, use MSDOS style CR-LF as the EOL code. So the above rule is just a general rule. Most editors (eg. vim, emacs, gedit, …) can handle files in MSDOS style EOL transparently. The use of "sed -e '/\r$/!s/$/\r/'" instead of todos1 is better when you want to unify the EOL style to the MSDOS style from the mixed MSDOS and Unix style. (e.g., after merging 2 MSDOS style files with diff31.) This is because todos adds CR to all lines.

There are few popular specialized programs to convert the tab codes. function bsdmainutils coreutils expand tab to spaces "col -x" expand unexpand tab from spaces "col -h" unexpand indent1 from the indent package completely reformats whitespaces in the C program. Editor programs such as vim and emacs can be used for TAB conversion, too. For example with vim, you can expand TAB with ":set expandtab" and ":%retab" command sequence. You can revert this with ":set noexpandtab" and ":%retab!" command sequence.

Intelligent modern editors such as the vim program are quite smart and copes well with any encoding systems and any file formats. You should use these editors under the UTF-8 locale in the UTF-8 capable console for the best compatibility. An old western European Unix text file, "u-file.txt", stored in the latin1 (iso-8859-1) encoding can be edited simply with vim by the following. $ vim u-file.txt This is possible since the auto detection mechanism of the file encoding in vim assumes the UTF-8 encoding first and, if it fails, assumes it to be latin1. An old Polish Unix text file, "pu-file.txt", stored in the latin2 (iso-8859-2) encoding can be edited with vim by the following. $ vim '+e ++enc=latin2 pu-file.txt' An old Japanese unix text file, "ju-file.txt", stored in the eucJP encoding can be edited with vim by the following. $ vim '+e ++enc=eucJP ju-file.txt' An old Japanese MS-Windows text file, "jw-file.txt", stored in the so called shift-JIS encoding (more precisely: CP932) can be edited with vim by the following. $ vim '+e ++enc=CP932 ++ff=dos jw-file.txt' When a file is opened with "++enc" and "++ff" options, ":w" in the Vim command line stores it in the original format and overwrite the original file. You can also specify the saving format and the file name in the Vim command line, e.g., ":w ++enc=utf8 new.txt". Please refer to the mbyte.txt "multi-byte text support" in vim on-line help and for locale values used with "++enc". The emacs family of programs can perform the equivalent functions.

The following reads a web page into a text file. This is very useful when copying configurations off the Web or applying basic Unix text tools such as grep1 on the web page. $ w3m -dump http://www.remote-site.com/help-info.html >textfile Similarly, you can extract plain text data from other formats using the following. package popcon size keyword function w3m @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ html→text HTML to text converter with the "w3m -dump" command html2text @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ html→text advanced HTML to text converter (ISO 8859-1) lynx @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ html→text HTML to text converter with the "lynx -dump" command elinks @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ html→text HTML to text converter with the "elinks -dump" command links @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ html→text HTML to text converter with the "links -dump" command links2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ html→text HTML to text converter with the "links2 -dump" command antiword @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ MSWord→text,ps convert MSWord files to plain text or ps catdoc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ MSWord→text,TeX convert MSWord files to plain text or TeX pstotext @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ps/pdf→text extract text from PostScript and PDF files unhtml @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ html→text remove the markup tags from an HTML file odt2txt @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ odt→text converter from OpenDocument Text to text

You can highlight and format plain text data by the following. package popcon size keyword description vim-runtime @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ highlight Vim MACRO to convert source code to HTML with ":source $VIMRUNTIME/syntax/html.vim" cxref @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ c→html converter for the C program to latex and HTML (C language) src2tex @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ highlight convert many source codes to TeX (C language) source-highlight @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ highlight convert many source codes to HTML, XHTML, LaTeX, Texinfo, ANSI color escape sequences and DocBook files with highlight (C++) highlight @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ highlight convert many source codes to HTML, XHTML, RTF, LaTeX, TeX or XSL-FO files with highlight (C++) grc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→color generic colouriser for everything (Python) txt2html @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→html text to HTML converter (Perl) markdown @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→html markdown text document formatter to (X)HTML (Perl) asciidoc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→any AsciiDoc text document formatter to XML/HTML (Python) pandoc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→any general markup converter (Haskell) python-docutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→any ReStructured Text document formatter to XML (Python) txt2tags @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→any document conversion from text to HTML, SGML, LaTeX, man page, MoinMoin, Magic Point and PageMaker (Python) udo @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→any universal document - text processing utility (C language) stx2any @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→any document converter from structured plain text to other formats (m4) rest2web @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→html document converter from ReStructured Text to html (Python) aft @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→any "free form" document preparation system (Perl) yodl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→any pre-document language and tools to process it (C language) sdf @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→any simple document parser (Perl) sisu @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→any document structuring, publishing and search framework (Ruby)

The Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language for documents containing structured information. See introductory information at XML.COM. "What is XML?" "What Is XSLT?" "What Is XSL-FO?" "What Is XLink?"

XML text looks somewhat like HTML. It enables us to manage multiple formats of output for a document. One easy XML system is the docbook-xsl package, which is used here. Each XML file starts with standard XML declaration as the following. <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> The basic syntax for one XML element is marked up as the following. <name attribute="value">content</name> XML element with empty content is marked up in the following short form. <name attribute="value"/> The "attribute="value"" in the above examples are optional. The comment section in XML is marked up as the following. <!-- comment --> Other than adding markups, XML requires minor conversion to the content using predefined entities for following characters. predefined entity character to be converted into &quot; " : quote &apos; ' : apostrophe &lt; < : less-than &gt; > : greater-than &amp; & : ampersand "<" or "&" can not be used in attributes or elements. When SGML style user defined entities, e.g. "&some-tag:", are used, the first definition wins over others. The entity definition is expressed in "<!ENTITY some-tag "entity value">". As long as the XML markup are done consistently with certain set of the tag name (either some data as content or attribute value), conversion to another XML is trivial task using Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations (XSLT).

There are many tools available to process XML files such as the Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL). Basically, once you create well formed XML file, you can convert it to any format using Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations (XSLT). The Extensible Stylesheet Language for Formatting Objects (XSL-FO) is supposed to be solution for formatting. The fop package is new to the Debian main archive due to its dependence to the Java programing language. So the LaTeX code is usually generated from XML using XSLT and the LaTeX system is used to create printable file such as DVI, PostScript, and PDF. package popcon size keyword description docbook-xml @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xml XML document type definition (DTD) for DocBook xsltproc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xslt XSLT command line processor (XML→ XML, HTML, plain text, etc.) docbook-xsl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xml/xslt XSL stylesheets for processing DocBook XML to various output formats with XSLT xmlto @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xml/xslt XML-to-any converter with XSLT dbtoepub @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xml/xslt DocBook XML to .epub converter dblatex @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xml/xslt convert Docbook files to DVI, PostScript, PDF documents with XSLT fop @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xml/xsl-fo convert Docbook XML files to PDF Since XML is subset of Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), it can be processed by the extensive tools available for SGML, such as Document Style Semantics and Specification Language (DSSSL). package popcon size keyword description openjade @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ dsssl ISO/IEC 10179:1996 standard DSSSL processor (latest) docbook-dsssl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xml/dsssl DSSSL stylesheets for processing DocBook XML to various output formats with DSSSL docbook-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xml/dsssl utilities for DocBook files including conversion to other formats (HTML, RTF, PS, man, PDF) with docbook2* commands with DSSSL sgml2x @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ SGML/dsssl converter from SGML and XML using DSSSL stylesheets GNOME's yelp is sometimes handy to read DocBook XML files directly since it renders decently on X.

You can extract HTML or XML data from other formats using followings. package popcon size keyword description wv @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ MSWord→any document converter from Microsoft Word to HTML, LaTeX, etc. texi2html @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ texi→html converter from Texinfo to HTML man2html @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ manpage→html converter from manpage to HTML (CGI support) unrtf @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ rtf→html document converter from RTF to HTML, etc info2www @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ info→html converter from GNU info to HTML (CGI support) ooo2dbk @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ sxw→xml converter from OpenOffice.org SXW documents to DocBook XML wp2x @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ WordPerfect→any WordPerfect 5.0 and 5.1 files to TeX, LaTeX, troff, GML and HTML doclifter @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ troff→xml converter from troff to DocBook XML For non-XML HTML files, you can convert them to XHTML which is an instance of well formed XML. XHTML can be processed by XML tools. package popcon size keyword description libxml2-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xml↔html↔xhtml command line XML tool with xmllint1 (syntax check, reformat, lint, …) tidy @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xml↔html↔xhtml HTML syntax checker and reformatter Once proper XML is generated, you can use XSLT technology to extract data based on the mark-up context etc.

The Unix troff program originally developed by AT&T can be used for simple typesetting. It is usually used to create manpages. TeX created by Donald Knuth is a very powerful type setting tool and is the de facto standard. LaTeX originally written by Leslie Lamport enables a high-level access to the power of TeX. package popcon size keyword description texlive @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ (La)TeX TeX system for typesetting, previewing and printing groff @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ troff GNU troff text-formatting system

Traditionally, roff is the main Unix text processing system. See roff7, groff7, groff1, grotty1, troff1, groff_mdoc7, groff_man7, groff_ms7, groff_me7, groff_mm7, and "info groff". You can read or print a good tutorial and reference on "-me" macro in "/usr/share/doc/groff/" by installing the groff package. "groff -Tascii -me -" produces plain text output with ANSI escape code. If you wish to get manpage like output with many "^H" and "_", use "GROFF_NO_SGR=1 groff -Tascii -me -" instead. To remove "^H" and "_" from a text file generated by groff, filter it by "col -b -x".

The TeX Live software distribution offers a complete TeX system. The texlive metapackage provides a decent selection of the TeX Live packages which should suffice for the most common tasks. There are many references available for TeX and LaTeX. The teTeX HOWTO: The Linux-teTeX Local Guide tex1 latex1 texdoc1 texdoctk1 "The TeXbook", by Donald E. Knuth, (Addison-Wesley) "LaTeX - A Document Preparation System", by Leslie Lamport, (Addison-Wesley) "The LaTeX Companion", by Goossens, Mittelbach, Samarin, (Addison-Wesley) This is the most powerful typesetting environment. Many SGML processors use this as their back end text processor. Lyx provided by the lyx package and GNU TeXmacs provided by the texmacs package offer nice WYSIWYG editing environment for LaTeX while many use Emacs and Vim as the choice for the source editor. There are many online resources available. The TEX Live Guide - TEX Live 2007 ("/usr/share/doc/texlive-doc-base/english/texlive-en/live.html") (texlive-doc-base package) A Simple Guide to Latex/Lyx Word Processing Using LaTeX Local User Guide to teTeX/LaTeX When documents become bigger, sometimes TeX may cause errors. You must increase pool size in "/etc/texmf/texmf.cnf" (or more appropriately edit "/etc/texmf/texmf.d/95NonPath" and run update-texmf8) to fix this. The TeX source of "The TeXbook" is available at http://tug.ctan.org/tex-archive/systems/knuth/dist/tex/texbook.tex. This file contains most of the required macros. I heard that you can process this document with tex1 after commenting lines 7 to 10 and adding "\input manmac \proofmodefalse". It's strongly recommended to buy this book (and all other books from Donald E. Knuth) instead of using the online version but the source is a great example of TeX input!

You can print a manual page in PostScript nicely by one of the following commands. $ man -Tps some_manpage | lpr

Although writing a manual page (manpage) in the plain troff format is possible, there are few helper packages to create it. package popcon size keyword description docbook-to-man @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ SGML→manpage converter from DocBook SGML into roff man macros help2man @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→manpage automatic manpage generator from --help info2man @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ info→manpage converter from GNU info to POD or man pages txt2man @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→manpage convert flat ASCII text to man page format

Printable data is expressed in the PostScript format on the Debian system. Common Unix Printing System (CUPS) uses Ghostscript as its rasterizer backend program for non-PostScript printers.

The core of printable data manipulation is the Ghostscript PostScript (PS) interpreter which generates raster image. The latest upstream Ghostscript from Artifex was re-licensed from AFPL to GPL and merged all the latest ESP version changes such as CUPS related ones at 8.60 release as unified release. package popcon size description ghostscript @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ The GPL Ghostscript PostScript/PDF interpreter ghostscript-x @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GPL Ghostscript PostScript/PDF interpreter - X display support libpoppler82 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ PDF rendering library forked from the xpdf PDF viewer libpoppler-glib8 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ PDF rendering library (GLib-based shared library) poppler-data @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ CMaps for PDF rendering library (for CJK support: Adobe-*) "gs -h" can display the configuration of Ghostscript.

You can merge two PostScript (PS) or Portable Document Format (PDF) files using gs1 of Ghostscript. $ gs -q -dNOPAUSE -dBATCH -sDEVICE=pswrite -sOutputFile=bla.ps -f foo1.ps foo2.ps $ gs -q -dNOPAUSE -dBATCH -sDEVICE=pdfwrite -sOutputFile=bla.pdf -f foo1.pdf foo2.pdf The PDF, which is a widely used cross-platform printable data format, is essentially the compressed PS format with few additional features and extensions. For command line, psmerge1 and other commands from the psutils package are useful for manipulating PostScript documents. pdftk1 from the pdftk package is useful for manipulating PDF documents, too.

The following packages for the printable data utilities caught my eyes. package popcon size keyword description poppler-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ pdf→ps,text,… PDF utilities: pdftops, pdfinfo, pdfimages, pdftotext, pdffonts psutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ps→ps PostScript document conversion tools poster @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ps→ps create large posters out of PostScript pages enscript @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→ps, html, rtf convert ASCII text to PostScript, HTML, RTF or Pretty-Print a2ps @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→ps 'Anything to PostScript' converter and pretty-printer pdftk @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ pdf→pdf PDF document conversion tool: pdftk html2ps @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ html→ps converter from HTML to PostScript gnuhtml2latex @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ html→latex converter from html to latex latex2rtf @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ latex→rtf convert documents from LaTeX to RTF which can be read by MS Word ps2eps @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ps→eps converter from PostScript to EPS (Encapsulated PostScript) e2ps @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→ps Text to PostScript converter with Japanese encoding support impose+ @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ps→ps PostScript utilities trueprint @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ text→ps pretty print many source codes (C, C++, Java, Pascal, Perl, Pike, Sh, and Verilog) to PostScript. (C language) pdf2svg @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ps→svg converter from PDF to Scalable vector graphics format pdftoipe @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ps→ipe converter from PDF to IPE's XML format

Both lp1 and lpr1 commands offered by Common Unix Printing System (CUPS) provides options for customized printing the printable data. You can print 3 copies of a file collated using one of the following commands. $ lp -n 3 -o Collate=True filename $ lpr -#3 -o Collate=True filename You can further customize printer operation by using printer option such as "-o number-up=2", "-o page-set=even", "-o page-set=odd", "-o scaling=200", "-o natural-scaling=200", etc., documented at Command-Line Printing and Options.

The following packages for the mail data conversion caught my eyes. package popcon size keyword description sharutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ mail shar1, unshar1, uuencode1, uudecode1 mpack @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ MIME encoding and decoding of MIME messages: mpack1 and munpack1 tnef @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ms-tnef unpacking MIME attachments of type "application/ms-tnef" which is a Microsoft only format uudeview @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ mail encoder and decoder for the following formats: uuencode, xxencode, BASE64, quoted printable, and BinHex The Internet Message Access Protocol version 4 (IMAP4) server (see ) may be used to move mails out from proprietary mail systems if the mail client software can be configured to use IMAP4 server too.

Mail (SMTP) data should be limited to series of 7 bit data. So binary data and 8 bit text data are encoded into 7 bit format with the Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) and the selection of the charset (see ). The standard mail storage format is mbox formatted according to RFC2822 (updated RFC822). See mbox5 (provided by the mutt package). For European languages, "Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable" with the ISO-8859-1 charset is usually used for mail since there are not much 8 bit characters. If European text is encoded in UTF-8, "Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable" is likely to be used since it is mostly 7 bit data. For Japanese, traditionally "Content-Type: text/plain; charset=ISO-2022-JP" is usually used for mail to keep text in 7 bits. But older Microsoft systems may send mail data in Shift-JIS without proper declaration. If Japanese text is encoded in UTF-8, Base64 is likely to be used since it contains many 8 bit data. The situation of other Asian languages is similar. If your non-Unix mail data is accessible by a non-Debian client software which can talk to the IMAP4 server, you may be able to move them out by running your own IMAP4 server (see ). If you use other mail storage formats, moving them to mbox format is the good first step. The versatile client program such as mutt1 may be handy for this. You can split mailbox contents to each message using procmail1 and formail1. Each mail message can be unpacked using munpack1 from the mpack package (or other specialized tools) to obtain the MIME encoded contents.

The following packages for the graphic data conversion, editing, and organization tools caught my eyes. package popcon size keyword description gimp @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(bitmap) GNU Image Manipulation Program imagemagick @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(bitmap) image manipulation programs graphicsmagick @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(bitmap) image manipulation programs (fork of imagemagick) xsane @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(bitmap) GTK+-based X11 frontend for SANE (Scanner Access Now Easy) netpbm @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(bitmap) graphics conversion tools icoutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ png↔ico(bitmap) convert MS Windows icons and cursors to and from PNG formats (favicon.ico) scribus @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ps/pdf/SVG/… Scribus DTP editor libreoffice-draw @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(vector) LibreOffice office suite - drawing inkscape @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(vector) SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) editor dia @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(vector) diagram editor (Gtk) xfig @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(vector) Facility for Interactive Generation of figures under X11 pstoedit @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ps/pdf→image(vector) PostScript and PDF files to editable vector graphics converter (SVG) libwmf-bin @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Windows/image(vector) Windows metafile (vector graphic data) conversion tools fig2sxd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ fig→sxd(vector) convert XFig files to OpenOffice.org Draw format unpaper @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image→image post-processing tool for scanned pages for OCR tesseract-ocr @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image→text free OCR software based on the HP's commercial OCR engine tesseract-ocr-eng @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image→text OCR engine data: tesseract-ocr language files for English text gocr @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image→text free OCR software ocrad @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image→text free OCR software eog @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) Eye of GNOME graphics viewer program gthumb @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) image viewer and browser (GNOME) geeqie @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) image viewer using GTK+ shotwell @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) digital photo organizer (GNOME) gtkam @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) application for retrieving media from digital cameras (GTK+) gphoto2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) The gphoto2 digital camera command-line client gwenview @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) image viewer (KDE) kamera @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) digital camera support for KDE applications digikam @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) digital photo management application for KDE exiv2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) EXIF/IPTC metadata manipulation tool exiftran @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) transform digital camera jpeg images jhead @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) manipulate the non-image part of Exif compliant JPEG (digital camera photo) files exif @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) command-line utility to show EXIF information in JPEG files exiftags @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) utility to read Exif tags from a digital camera JPEG file exifprobe @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif) read metadata from digital pictures dcraw @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Raw)→ppm decode raw digital camera images findimagedupes @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image→fingerprint find visually similar or duplicate images ale @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image→image merge images to increase fidelity or create mosaics imageindex @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ image(Exif)→html generate static HTML galleries from images outguess @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ jpeg,png universal Steganographic tool librecad @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ DXF CAD data editor (KDE) blender @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ blend, TIFF, VRML, … 3D content editor for animation etc mm3d @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ms3d, obj, dxf, … OpenGL based 3D model editor open-font-design-toolkit @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ttf, ps, … metapackage for open font design fontforge @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ttf, ps, … font editor for PS, TrueType and OpenType fonts xgridfit @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ttf program for gridfitting and hinting TrueType fonts Search more image tools using regex "~Gworks-with::image" in aptitude8 (see ). Although GUI programs such as gimp1 are very powerful, command line tools such as imagemagick1 are quite useful for automating image manipulation via scripts. The de facto image file format of the digital camera is the Exchangeable Image File Format (EXIF) which is the JPEG image file format with additional metadata tags. It can hold information such as date, time, and camera settings. The Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) lossless data compression patent has been expired. Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) utilities which use the LZW compression method are now freely available on the Debian system. Any digital camera or scanner with removable recording media works with Linux through USB storage readers since it follows the Design rule for Camera Filesystem and uses FAT filesystem. See .

There are many other programs for converting data. Following packages caught my eyes using regex "~Guse::converting" in aptitude8 (see ). package popcon size keyword description alien @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ rpm/tgz→deb converter for the foreign package into the Debian package freepwing @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ EB→EPWING converter from "Electric Book" (popular in Japan) to a single JIS X 4081 format (a subset of the EPWING V1) calibre @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ any→EPUB e-book converter and library management You can also extract data from RPM format with the following. $ rpm2cpio file.src.rpm | cpio --extract

I provide some pointers for people to learn programming on the Debian system enough to trace the packaged source code. Here are notable packages and corresponding documentation packages for programming. package popcon size documentation autoconf @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info autoconf" provided by autoconf-doc automake @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info automake" provided by automake1.10-doc bash @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info bash" provided by bash-doc bison @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info bison" provided by bison-doc cpp @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info cpp" provided by cpp-doc ddd @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info ddd" provided by ddd-doc exuberant-ctags @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ exuberant-ctags1 flex @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info flex" provided by flex-doc gawk @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info gawk" provided by gawk-doc gcc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info gcc" provided by gcc-doc gdb @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info gdb" provided by gdb-doc gettext @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info gettext" provided by gettext-doc gfortran @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info gfortran" provided by gfortran-doc (Fortran 95) fpc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ fpc1 and html by fp-docs (Pascal) glade @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ help provided via menu (UI Builder) libc6 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info libc" provided by glibc-doc and glibc-doc-reference make @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "info make" provided by make-doc xutils-dev @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ imake1, xmkmf1, etc. mawk @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ mawk1 perl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ perl1 and html pages provided by perl-doc and perl-doc-html python @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ python1 and html pages provided by python-doc tcl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ tcl3 and detail manual pages provided by tcl-doc tk @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ tk3 and detail manual pages provided by tk-doc ruby @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ ruby1 and interactive reference provided by ri vim @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ help(F1) menu provided by vim-doc susv2 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ fetch "The Single UNIX Specifications v2" susv3 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ fetch "The Single UNIX Specifications v3" Online references are available by typing "man name" after installing manpages and manpages-dev packages. Online references for the GNU tools are available by typing "info program_name" after installing the pertinent documentation packages. You may need to include the contrib and non-free archives in addition to the main archive since some GFDL documentations are not considered to be DFSG compliant. Do not use "test" as the name of an executable test file. "test" is a shell builtin. You should install software programs directly compiled from source into "/usr/local" or "/opt" to avoid collision with system programs. Code examples of creating "Song 99 Bottles of Beer" should give you good ideas of practically all the programming languages.

The shell script is a text file with the execution bit set and contains the commands in the following format. #!/bin/sh ... command lines The first line specifies the shell interpreter which read and execute this file contents. Reading shell scripts is the best way to understand how a Unix-like system works. Here, I give some pointers and reminders for shell programming. See "Shell Mistakes" (http://www.greenend.org.uk/rjk/2001/04/shell.html) to learn from mistakes. Unlike shell interactive mode (see and ), shell scripts frequently use parameters, conditionals, and loops.

Many system scripts may be interpreted by any one of POSIX shells (see ). The default shell for the system is "/bin/sh" which is a symlink pointing to the actual program. bash1 for lenny or older dash1 for squeeze or newer Avoid writing a shell script with bashisms or zshisms to make it portable among all POSIX shells. You can check it using checkbashisms1. Good: POSIX Avoid: bashism if [ "$foo" = "$bar" ] ; then … if [ "$foo" == "$bar" ] ; then … diff -u file.c.orig file.c diff -u file.c{.orig,} mkdir /foobar /foobaz mkdir /foo{bar,baz} funcname() { … } function funcname() { … } octal format: "\377" hexadecimal format: "\xff" The "echo" command must be used with following cares since its implementation differs among shell builtin and external commands. Avoid using any command options except "-n". Avoid using escape sequences in the string since their handling varies. Although "-n" option is not really POSIX syntax, it is generally accepted. Use the "printf" command instead of the "echo" command if you need to embed escape sequences in the output string.

Special shell parameters are frequently used in the shell script. shell parameter value $0 name of the shell or shell script $1 first (1st) shell argument $9 ninth (9th) shell argument $# number of positional parameters "$*" "$1 $2 $3 $4 … " "$@" "$1" "$2" "$3" "$4" … $? exit status of the most recent command $$ PID of this shell script $! PID of most recently started background job Basic parameter expansions to remember are as follows. parameter expression form value if var is set value if var is not set ${var:-string} "$var" "string" ${var:+string} "string" "null" ${var:=string} "$var" "string" (and run "var=string") ${var:?string} "$var" echo "string" to stderr (and exit with error) Here, the colon ":" in all of these operators is actually optional. with ":" = operator test for exist and not null without ":" = operator test for exist only parameter substitution form result ${var%suffix} remove smallest suffix pattern ${var%%suffix} remove largest suffix pattern ${var#prefix} remove smallest prefix pattern ${var##prefix} remove largest prefix pattern

Each command returns an exit status which can be used for conditional expressions. Success: 0 ("True") Error: non 0 ("False") "0" in the shell conditional context means "True", while "0" in the C conditional context means "False". "[" is the equivalent of the test command, which evaluates its arguments up to "]" as a conditional expression. Basic conditional idioms to remember are the following. "<command> && <if_success_run_this_command_too> || true" "<command> || <if_not_success_run_this_command_too> || true" A multi-line script snippet as the following if [ <conditional_expression> ]; then <if_success_run_this_command> else <if_not_success_run_this_command> fi Here trailing "|| true" was needed to ensure this shell script does not exit at this line accidentally when shell is invoked with "-e" flag. equation condition to return logical true -e <file> <file> exists -d <file> <file> exists and is a directory -f <file> <file> exists and is a regular file -w <file> <file> exists and is writable -x <file> <file> exists and is executable <file1> -nt <file2> <file1> is newer than <file2> (modification) <file1> -ot <file2> <file1> is older than <file2> (modification) <file1> -ef <file2> <file1> and <file2> are on the same device and the same inode number equation condition to return logical true -z <str> the length of <str> is zero -n <str> the length of <str> is non-zero <str1> = <str2> <str1> and <str2> are equal <str1> != <str2> <str1> and <str2> are not equal <str1> < <str2> <str1> sorts before <str2> (locale dependent) <str1> > <str2> <str1> sorts after <str2> (locale dependent) Arithmetic integer comparison operators in the conditional expression are "-eq", "-ne", "-lt", "-le", "-gt", and "-ge".

There are several loop idioms to use in POSIX shell. "for x in foo1 foo2 … ; do command ; done" loops by assigning items from the list "foo1 foo2 …" to variable "x" and executing "command". "while condition ; do command ; done" repeats "command" while "condition" is true. "until condition ; do command ; done" repeats "command" while "condition" is not true. "break" enables to exit from the loop. "continue" enables to resume the next iteration of the loop. The C-language like numeric iteration can be realized by using seq1 as the "foo1 foo2 …" generator. See .

The shell processes a script roughly as the following sequence. The shell reads a line. The shell groups a part of the line as one token if it is within "…" or '…'. The shell splits other part of a line into tokens by the following. Whitespaces: <space> <tab> <newline> Metacharacters: < > | ; & ( ) The shell checks the reserved word for each token to adjust its behavior if not within "…" or '…'. reserved word: if then elif else fi for in while unless do done case esac The shell expands alias if not within "…" or '…'. The shell expands tilde if not within "…" or '…'. "~" → current user's home directory "~<user>" → <user>'s home directory The shell expands parameter to its value if not within '…'. parameter: "$PARAMETER" or "${PARAMETER}" The shell expands command substitution if not within '…'. "$( command )" → the output of "command" "` command `" → the output of "command" The shell expands pathname glob to matching file names if not within "…" or '…'. * → any characters ? → one character […] → any one of the characters in "…" The shell looks up command from the following and execute it. function definition builtin command executable file in "$PATH" The shell goes to the next line and repeats this process again from the top of this sequence. Single quotes within double quotes have no effect. Executing "set -x" in the shell or invoking the shell with "-x" option make the shell to print all of commands executed. This is quite handy for debugging.

In order to make your shell program as portable as possible across Debian systems, it is a good idea to limit utility programs to ones provided by essential packages. "aptitude search ~E" lists essential packages. "dpkg -L <package_name> |grep '/man/man.*/'" lists manpages for commands offered by <package_name> package. package popcon size description coreutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNU core utilities debianutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ miscellaneous utilities specific to Debian bsdmainutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ collection of more utilities from FreeBSD bsdutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ basic utilities from 4.4BSD-Lite moreutils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ additional Unix utilities Although moreutils may not exist ouside of Debian, it offers interesting small programs. Most notable one is sponge8 which is quite useful when you wish to overwrite original file.

The user interface of a simple shell program can be improved from dull interaction by echo and read commands to more interactive one by using one of the so-called dialog program etc. package popcon size description x11-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ xmessage1: display a message or query in a window (X) whiptail @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ displays user-friendly dialog boxes from shell scripts (newt) dialog @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ displays user-friendly dialog boxes from shell scripts (ncurses) zenity @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ display graphical dialog boxes from shell scripts (gtk2.0) ssft @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Shell Scripts Frontend Tool (wrapper for zenity, kdialog, and dialog with gettext) gettext @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ "/usr/bin/gettext.sh": translate message

Here is a simple script which creates ISO image with RS02 data supplemented by dvdisaster1. #!/bin/sh -e # gmkrs02 : Copyright (C) 2007 Osamu Aoki <osamu@debian.org>, Public Domain #set -x error_exit() { echo "$1" >&2 exit 1 } # Initialize variables DATA_ISO="$HOME/Desktop/iso-$$.img" LABEL=$(date +%Y%m%d-%H%M%S-%Z) if [ $# != 0 ] && [ -d "$1" ]; then DATA_SRC="$1" else # Select directory for creating ISO image from folder on desktop DATA_SRC=$(zenity --file-selection --directory \ --title="Select the directory tree root to create ISO image") \ || error_exit "Exit on directory selection" fi # Check size of archive xterm -T "Check size $DATA_SRC" -e du -s $DATA_SRC/* SIZE=$(($(du -s $DATA_SRC | awk '{print $1}')/1024)) if [ $SIZE -le 520 ] ; then zenity --info --title="Dvdisaster RS02" --width 640 --height 400 \ --text="The data size is good for CD backup:\\n $SIZE MB" elif [ $SIZE -le 3500 ]; then zenity --info --title="Dvdisaster RS02" --width 640 --height 400 \ --text="The data size is good for DVD backup :\\n $SIZE MB" else zenity --info --title="Dvdisaster RS02" --width 640 --height 400 \ --text="The data size is too big to backup : $SIZE MB" error_exit "The data size is too big to backup :\\n $SIZE MB" fi # only xterm is sure to have working -e option # Create raw ISO image rm -f "$DATA_ISO" || true xterm -T "genisoimage $DATA_ISO" \ -e genisoimage -r -J -V "$LABEL" -o "$DATA_ISO" "$DATA_SRC" # Create RS02 supplemental redundancy xterm -T "dvdisaster $DATA_ISO" -e dvdisaster -i "$DATA_ISO" -mRS02 -c zenity --info --title="Dvdisaster RS02" --width 640 --height 400 \ --text="ISO/RS02 data ($SIZE MB) \\n created at: $DATA_ISO" # EOF You may wish to create launcher on the desktop with command set something like "/usr/local/bin/gmkrs02 %d".

Make is a utility to maintain groups of programs. Upon execution of make1, make read the rule file, "Makefile", and updates a target if it depends on prerequisite files that have been modified since the target was last modified, or if the target does not exist. The execution of these updates may occur concurrently. The rule file syntax is the following. target: [ prerequisites ... ] [TAB] command1 [TAB] -command2 # ignore errors [TAB] @command3 # suppress echoing Here "[TAB]" is a TAB code. Each line is interpreted by the shell after make variable substitution. Use "\" at the end of a line to continue the script. Use "$$" to enter "$" for environment values for a shell script. Implicit rules for the target and prerequisites can be written, for example, by the following. %.o: %.c header.h Here, the target contains the character "%" (exactly one of them). The "%" can match any nonempty substring in the actual target filenames. The prerequisites likewise use "%" to show how their names relate to the actual target name. automatic variable value $@ target $< first prerequisite $? all newer prerequisites $^ all prerequisites $* "%" matched stem in the target pattern variable expansion description foo1 := bar one-time expansion foo2 = bar recursive expansion foo3 += bar append Run "make -p -f/dev/null" to see automatic internal rules.

You can set up proper environment to compile programs written in the C programming language by the following. # apt-get install glibc-doc manpages-dev libc6-dev gcc build-essential The libc6-dev package, i.e., GNU C Library, provides C standard library which is collection of header files and library routines used by the C programming language. See references for C as the following. "info libc" (C library function reference) gcc1 and "info gcc" each_C_library_function_name3 Kernighan & Ritchie, "The C Programming Language", 2nd edition (Prentice Hall)

A simple example "example.c" can compiled with a library "libm" into an executable "run_example" by the following. $ cat > example.c << EOF #include <stdio.h> #include <math.h> #include <string.h> int main(int argc, char **argv, char **envp){ double x; char y[11]; x=sqrt(argc+7.5); strncpy(y, argv[0], 10); /* prevent buffer overflow */ y[10] = '\0'; /* fill to make sure string ends with '\0' */ printf("%5i, %5.3f, %10s, %10s\n", argc, x, y, argv[1]); return 0; } EOF $ gcc -Wall -g -o run_example example.c -lm $ ./run_example 1, 2.915, ./run_exam, (null) $ ./run_example 1234567890qwerty 2, 3.082, ./run_exam, 1234567890qwerty Here, "-lm" is needed to link library "/usr/lib/libm.so" from the libc6 package for sqrt3. The actual library is in "/lib/" with filename "libm.so.6", which is a symlink to "libm-2.7.so". Look at the last parameter in the output text. There are more than 10 characters even though "%10s" is specified. The use of pointer memory operation functions without boundary checks, such as sprintf3 and strcpy3, is deprecated to prevent buffer overflow exploits that leverage the above overrun effects. Instead, use snprintf3 and strncpy3.

Debug is important part of programing activities. Knowing how to debug programs makes you a good Debian user who can produce meaningful bug reports.

Primary debugger on Debian is gdb1 which enables you to inspect a program while it executes. Let's install gdb and related programs by the following. # apt-get install gdb gdb-doc build-essential devscripts Good tutorial of gdb is provided by "info gdb" or found elsewhere on the web. Here is a simple example of using gdb1 on a "program" compiled with the "-g" option to produce debugging information. $ gdb program (gdb) b 1 # set break point at line 1 (gdb) run args # run program with args (gdb) next # next line ... (gdb) step # step forward ... (gdb) p parm # print parm ... (gdb) p parm=12 # set value to 12 ... (gdb) quit Many gdb1 commands can be abbreviated. Tab expansion works as in the shell.

Since all installed binaries should be stripped on the Debian system by default, most debugging symbols are removed in the normal package. In order to debug Debian packages with gdb1, either corresponding *-dbg packages or *-dbgsym packages need to be installed (e.g. libc6-dbg in the case of libc6, coreutils-dbgsym in the case of coreutils). Old-style packages would provide its corresponding *-dbg package. It is placed directly inside Debian main archive alongside of the original package itself. For newer packages, they may generate *-dbgsym packages automatically when built and those debug packages are placed separately in debian-debug archive. Please refer to articles on Debian Wiki for more information. If a package to be debugged does not provide either its *-dbg package or its *-dbgsym package, you need to install it after rebuilding it by the following. $ mkdir /path/new ; cd /path/new $ sudo apt-get update $ sudo apt-get dist-upgrade $ sudo apt-get install fakeroot devscripts build-essential $ apt-get source package_name $ cd package_name* $ sudo apt-get build-dep ./ Fix bugs if needed. Bump package version to one which does not collide with official Debian versions, e.g. one appended with "+debug1" when recompiling existing package version, or one appended with "~pre1" when compiling unreleased package version by the following. $ dch -i Compile and install packages with debug symbols by the following. $ export DEB_BUILD_OPTIONS="nostrip noopt" $ debuild $ cd .. $ sudo debi package_name*.changes You need to check build scripts of the package and ensure to use "CFLAGS=-g -Wall" for compiling binaries.

When you encounter program crash, reporting bug report with cut-and-pasted backtrace information is a good idea. The backtrace can be obtained by the following steps. Run the program under gdb1. Reproduce crash. It causes you to be dropped back to the gdb prompt. Type "bt" at the gdb prompt. In case of program freeze, you can crash the program by pressing Ctrl-C in the terminal running gdb to obtain gdb prompt. Often, you see a backtrace where one or more of the top lines are in "malloc()" or "g_malloc()". When this happens, chances are your backtrace isn't very useful. The easiest way to find some useful information is to set the environment variable "$MALLOC_CHECK_" to a value of 2 (malloc3). You can do this while running gdb by doing the following. $ MALLOC_CHECK_=2 gdb hello

command description for command objectives (gdb) thread apply all bt get a backtrace for all threads for multi-threaded program (gdb) bt full get parameters came on the stack of function calls (gdb) thread apply all bt full get a backtrace and parameters as the combination of the preceding options (gdb) thread apply all bt full 10 get a backtrace and parameters for top 10 calls to cut off irrelevant output (gdb) set logging on write log of gdb output to a file (the default is "gdb.txt")

If a GNOME program preview1 has received an X error, you should see a message as follows. The program 'preview1' received an X Window System error. If this is the case, you can try running the program with "--sync", and break on the "gdk_x_error" function in order to obtain a backtrace.

Use ldd1 to find out a program's dependency on libraries by the followings. $ ldd /bin/ls librt.so.1 => /lib/librt.so.1 (0x4001e000) libc.so.6 => /lib/libc.so.6 (0x40030000) libpthread.so.0 => /lib/libpthread.so.0 (0x40153000) /lib/ld-linux.so.2 => /lib/ld-linux.so.2 (0x40000000) For ls1 to work in a `chroot`ed environment, the above libraries must be available in your `chroot`ed environment. See .

There are several memory leak detection tools available in Debian. package popcon size description libc6-dev @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ mtrace1: malloc debugging functionality in glibc valgrind @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ memory debugger and profiler electric-fence @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ malloc3 debugger leaktracer @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ memory-leak tracer for C++ programs libdmalloc5 @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ debug memory allocation library

There are lint like tools for static code analysis. package popcon size description splint @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ tool for statically checking C programs for bugs flawfinder @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ tool to examine C/C++ source code and looks for security weaknesses perl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ interpreter with internal static code checker: B::Lint3perl pylint @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Python code static checker weblint-perl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ syntax and minimal style checker for HTML linklint @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ fast link checker and web site maintenance tool libxml2-utils @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ utilities with xmllint1 to validate XML files

You can disassemble binary code with objdump1 by the following. $ objdump -m i386 -b binary -D /usr/lib/grub/x86_64-pc/stage1 gdb1 may be used to disassemble code interactively.

Flex is a Lex-compatible fast lexical analyzer generator. Tutorial for flex1 can be found in "info flex". You need to provide your own "main()" and "yywrap()". Otherwise, your flex program should look like this to compile without a library. This is because that "yywrap" is a macro and "%option main" turns on "%option noyywrap" implicitly. %option main %% .|\n ECHO ; %% Alternatively, you may compile with the "-lfl" linker option at the end of your cc1 command line (like AT&T-Lex with "-ll"). No "%option" is needed in this case.

Several packages provide a Yacc-compatible lookahead LR parser or LALR parser generator in Debian. package popcon size description bison @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ GNU LALR parser generator byacc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ Berkeley LALR parser generator btyacc @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ backtracking parser generator based on byacc Tutorial for bison1 can be found in "info bison". You need to provide your own "main()" and "yyerror()". "main()" calls "yyparse()" which calls "yylex()", usually created with Flex. %% %%

Autoconf is a tool for producing shell scripts that automatically configure software source code packages to adapt to many kinds of Unix-like systems using the entire GNU build system. autoconf1 produces the configuration script "configure". "configure" automatically creates a customized "Makefile" using the "Makefile.in" template.

Do not overwrite system files with your compiled programs when installing them. Debian does not touch files in "/usr/local/" or "/opt". So if you compile a program from source, install it into "/usr/local/" so it does not interfere with Debian. $ cd src $ ./configure --prefix=/usr/local $ make $ make install # this puts the files in the system

If you have the original source and if it uses autoconf1/automake1 and if you can remember how you configured it, execute as follows to uninstall the program. $ ./configure "all-of-the-options-you-gave-it" # make uninstall Alternatively, if you are absolutely sure that the install process puts files only under "/usr/local/" and there is nothing important there, you can erase all its contents by the following. # find /usr/local -type f -print0 | xargs -0 rm -f If you are not sure where files are installed, you should consider using checkinstall8 from the checkinstall package, which provides a clean path for the uninstall. It now supports to create a Debian package with "-D" option.

Although any AWK scripts can be automatically rewritten in Perl using a2p1, one-liner AWK scripts are best converted to one-liner Perl scripts manually. Let's think following AWK script snippet. awk '($2=="1957") { print $3 }' | This is equivalent to any one of the following lines. perl -ne '@f=split; if ($f[1] eq "1957") { print "$f[2]\n"}' | perl -ne 'if ((@f=split)[1] eq "1957") { print "$f[2]\n"}' | perl -ne '@f=split; print $f[2] if ( $f[1]==1957 )' | perl -lane 'print $F[2] if $F[1] eq "1957"' | perl -lane 'print$F[2]if$F[1]eq+1957' | The last one is a riddle. It took advantage of following Perl features. The whitespace is optional. The automatic conversion exists from number to the string. See perlrun1 for the command-line options. For more crazy Perl scripts, Perl Golf may be interesting.

Basic interactive dynamic web pages can be made as follows. Queries are presented to the browser user using HTML forms. Filling and clicking on the form entries sends one of the following URL string with encoded parameters from the browser to the web server. "http://www.foo.dom/cgi-bin/program.pl?VAR1=VAL1&VAR2=VAL2&VAR3=VAL3" "http://www.foo.dom/cgi-bin/program.py?VAR1=VAL1&VAR2=VAL2&VAR3=VAL3" "http://www.foo.dom/program.php?VAR1=VAL1&VAR2=VAL2&VAR3=VAL3" "%nn" in URL is replaced with a character with hexadecimal nn value. The environment variable is set as: "QUERY_STRING="VAR1=VAL1 VAR2=VAL2 VAR3=VAL3"". CGI program (any one of "program.*") on the web server executes itself with the environment variable "$QUERY_STRING". stdout of CGI program is sent to the web browser and is presented as an interactive dynamic web page. For security reasons it is better not to hand craft new hacks for parsing CGI parameters. There are established modules for them in Perl and Python. PHP comes with these functionalities. When client data storage is needed, HTTP cookies are used. When client side data processing is needed, Javascript is frequently used. For more, see the Common Gateway Interface, The Apache Software Foundation, and JavaScript. Searching "CGI tutorial" on Google by typing encoded URL http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&ie=UTF-8&q=CGI+tutorial directly to the browser address is a good way to see the CGI script in action on the Google server.

There are programs to convert source codes. package popcon size keyword description perl @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ AWK→PERL convert source codes from AWK to PERL: a2p1 f2c @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ FORTRAN→C convert source codes from FORTRAN 77 to C/C++: f2c1 intel2gas @-@popcon1@-@ @-@psize1@-@ intel→gas converter from NASM (Intel format) to the GNU Assembler (GAS)

If you want to make a Debian package, read followings. to understand the basic package system to understand basic porting process to understand basic chroot techniques debuild1, pbuilder1 and pdebuild1 for recompiling for debugging Debian New Maintainers' Guide as tutorial (the maint-guide package) Debian Developer's Reference (the developers-reference package) Debian Policy Manual (the debian-policy package) Guide for Debian Maintainers (the debmake-doc package) There are packages such as debmake, dh-make, dh-make-perl, etc., which help packaging.

Here are backgrounds of this document.

The Linux system is a very powerful computing platform for a networked computer. However, learning how to use all its capabilities is not easy. Setting up the LPR printer queue with a non-PostScript printer was a good example of stumble points. (There are no issues anymore since newer installations use the new CUPS system.) There is a complete, detailed map called the "SOURCE CODE". This is very accurate but very hard to understand. There are also references called HOWTO and mini-HOWTO. They are easier to understand but tend to give too much detail and lose the big picture. I sometimes have a problem finding the right section in a long HOWTO when I need a few commands to invoke. I hope this "Debian Reference (version @-@dr-version@-@)" (@-@build-date@-@) provides a good starting direction for people in the Debian maze.

The Debian Reference was initiated by me, Osamu Aoki <osamu at debian dot org>, as a personal system administration memo. Many contents came from the knowledge I gained from the debian-user mailing list and other Debian resources. Following a suggestion from Josip Rodin, who was very active with the Debian Documentation Project (DDP), "Debian Reference (version 1, 2001-2007)" was created as a part of DDP documents. After 6 years, I realized that the original "Debian Reference (version 1)" was outdated and started to rewrite many contents. New "Debian Reference (version 2)" is released in 2008. The tutorial contents can trace its origin and its inspiration in followings. "Linux User's Guide" by Larry Greenfield (December 1996) obsoleted by "Debian Tutorial" "Debian Tutorial" by Havoc Pennington. (11 December, 1998) partially written by Oliver Elphick, Ole Tetlie, James Treacy, Craig Sawyer, and Ivan E. Moore II obsoleted by "Debian GNU/Linux: Guide to Installation and Usage" "Debian GNU/Linux: Guide to Installation and Usage" by John Goerzen and Ossama Othman (1999) obsoleted by "Debian Reference (version 1)" The package and archive description can trace some of their origin and their inspiration in following. "Debian FAQ" (March 2002 version, when this was maintained by Josip Rodin) The other contents can trace some of their origin and their inspiration in following. "Debian Reference (version 1)" by Osamu Aoki (2001–2007) obsoleted by the newer "Debian Reference (version 2)" in 2008. The previous "Debian Reference (version 1)" was created with many contributors. the major contents contribution on network configuration topics by Thomas Hood significant contents contribution on X and VCS related topics by Brian Nelson the help on the build scripts and many content corrections by Jens Seidel extensive proofreading by David Sewell many contributions by the translators, contributors, and bug reporters Many manual pages and info pages on the Debian system were used as the primary references to write this document. To the extent Osamu Aoki considered within the fair use, many parts of them, especially command definitions, were used as phrase pieces after careful editorial efforts to fit them into the style and the objective of this document. The gdb debugger description was expanded using Debian wiki contents on backtrace with consent by Ari Pollak, Loïc Minier, and Dafydd Harries. Contents of the current "Debian Reference (version @-@dr-version@-@)" (@-@build-date@-@) are mostly my own work except as mentioned above. These has been updated by the contributors too. The author, Osamu Aoki, thanks all those who helped make this document possible.

The source of the English original document is currently written in AsciiDoc text files. AsciiDoc is used as convenience only since it is less typing than straight XML and supports table in the very intuitive format. You should think XML and PO files as real source files. Via build script, it is converted to DocBook XML format and automatically generated data are inserted to form a final Docbook XML source. This final Docbook XML source can be converted to HTML, epub, plain text, PostScript, and PDF. (Some formats may be skipped for distribution.)